Processed Meat and Poultry (all species)
| Reference | Product Category | Product | Type of Meat | Microorganism Tested | Process / Intervention | Pathogen Effect | Experimental/Identified Parameters* | Important Operational Parameters** | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Allende, A., Bolton, D., Chemaly, M., Davies, R., Escamez, P. S. F., Girones, R., Herman, L., Koutsoumanis, K., Lindqvist, R., Norrung, B., Ricci, A., Robertson, L., Ru, G., Sanaa, M., Simmons, M., Skandamis, P., Snary, E., Speybroeck, N., Ter Kuile, B., Threlfall, J., Wahlstrom, H., and BIOHAZ, E. P. B. H. 2016. Evaluation of the safety and efficacy of Listex (TM) P100 for reduction of pathogens on different ready-to-eat (RTE) food products EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ). Efsa Journal 14:94. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Various | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobial (ListexTM P100 bacteriophage) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Listex P100 dose: 106 to 109 PFU/cm2 Product Coverage: Listex P100 is applied to the surface to control surface contamination with L. monocytogenes Other: Strain of L. monocytogenes | Concentration: Listex P100 dose Other: Strain of L. monocytogenes | This paper is a review and includes a summary and expert evaluation of the efficacy of the commercial listeria bacteriophage preparation Listex P100 on a variety of ready-to-eat food products. Importantly, the paper does state that the FBO (food business operators) should validate the efficacy of the P100 dose applied in the specific product before it leaves the processing plant, and, on a regular basis, examine the susceptibility to Listex P100 of L. monocytogenes strains isolated from the raw material/processing plant… The paper concludes that a mean L. monocytogenes reduction of 1.74 can be achieved on RTE meat products if a dose of 109 PFU/cm2 is used. If a lower dose (108 PFU/cm2) is used, a reduction of about 0.5 log would be expected. Neither the time/temperature of storage nor the initial L. monocytogenes levels on the food before treatment affected the log reduction of L. monocytogenes significantly. However, L. monocytogenes present in a product at the level of 100 to 100,000 CFU/g is not completely eliminated with a ListexP100 dose of 108-109 and can grow back during storage. Not all L. monocytogenes strains are sensitive to Listex P100. |
| Ananou, S., Garriga, M., Jofre, A., Aymerich, T., Galvez, A., Maqueda, M., Martinez-Bueno, M., and Valdivia, E. 2010. Combined effect of enterocin AS-48 and high hydrostatic pressure to control food-borne pathogens inoculated in low acid fermented sausages. Meat Sci. 84:594. | NHT/SS | Low-acid fermented pork sausages (Fuet) | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella enterica Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (enterocin AS-48) High-pressure processing Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Ripening time: 10 days · HPP time: 10 min · HPP come-up time: ~9 min · HPP pressure release time: 1.5 min · Storage time: 30 days after beginning of ripening (19 days after HPP treatment) Temperature: · Ripening temperature 15°C · Storage temperature: 7°C or room temperature · HPP temperature: 17°C Concentration: · In all sausage formulations: o NaCl: 20 g/kg o Sodium nitrite: 0.1 g/kg o Potassium nitrate: 0.1 g/kg o Sodium ascorbate: 0.5 g/kg · In select sausages: o AS-48: 148 AU/g Humidity: · Ripening humidity: 72% RH · Storage humidity: 51 or 83% humidity Water Activity: ~0.8 for sausages stored at room temperature; higher values for sausages stored at 7°C pH: ~5.92 at the end of ripening; ~6.5 at the end of storage Product Coverage: AS-48 was added to meat batter Spatial Configuration: Raw fuets were made in 28 mm collagen casings, about 200 g each and 112 to 131 g after ripening; sausages were packed into plastic bags for HPP treatment Pressure: · 400 MPa Other: · Penicillium candidum was used on the surface of the sausages · Pathogens were inoculated in meat batter prior to stuffing into casings | Time: Storage time (L. monocytogenes) Concentration: AS-48 (for L. monocytogenes and Salmonella Pressure: HPP (for Salmonella) | AS-48 alone was effective against L. monocytogenes, while AS-48 plus HPP was effective against Salmonella. Neither intervention (alone or together) were effective against S. aureus. AS-48 reduced L. monocytogenes numbers >5 log during the first 5 days of ripening and prevented growth during storage throughout the 30 day study under either storage conditions. HPP alone only slightly reduced (0.58 log) L. monocytogenes levels and did not affect AS-48’s efficacy. Control sausages without AS-48 or HPP treatment saw a decline in L. monocytogenes levels during storage. AS-48 treatment decreased Salmonella numbers by 1.79 log during ripening. HPP treatment significantly reduced Salmonella numbers as well, with the lowest Salmonella levels found in sausages treated with both AS-48 and HPP. S. aureus was the most resistant pathogen to AS-48 and also to HHP treatment under the conditions assayed in the present work. In fact, after a 5-day lag period, S. aureus grew in both control and enterocin batches, reaching at the end of ripening populations that exceeded 5 log CFU/g. Note: enterocin AS-48 is not yet legally allowed in foods in the U.S. as of this writing. |
| Argyri, A. A., Papadopoulou, O. S., Nisiotou, A., Tassou, C. C., and Chorianopoulos, N. 2018. Effect of high pressure processing on the survival of Salmonella Enteritidis and shelf-life of chicken fillets. Food Microbiol. 70:55. | Raw | Chicken breast fillets | Chicken | Salmonella spp. | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: · HPP time: 10 min · Storage time: Up to 18 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 18 to 20°C · Storage temperature: 4 or 12°C pH: 6.01 to 6.17 initially (immediately after HPP treatment), with no significant changes during storage. Contact Time: Product Coverage: Spatial Configuration: 30 g portions inoculated on surface and packed under vacuum in plastic pouches Pressure: · 500 MPa · Pressure come-up rate was approximately 100 MPa per 7s · Pressure release time was 3 s Equipment Settings: Pressure transmitting fluid was polyglycol ISO viscosity class VG 15 Other: Inoculation level for Salmonella: 3 to 7 log CFU/g | Time: · HPP time · Storage time Temperature: · Storage temperature Pressure: · HPP pressure Other: · Inoculation level | The HPP treatment resulted in the reduction of the pathogen [Salmonella] population below the detection limit of the enumeration method, even in the samples with high initial level of inoculum (107 CFU/g) (i.e. reduction of 6.5 log cycles). During storage of the HPP treated samples at 4 °C, the pathogen [Salmonella] population remained below or near the detection limit of the enumeration method, depending on the inoculum level and the storage day. During storage, the pathogens [Salmonella] population remained below or near the detection limit of the enumeration method in the low and medium levels of inoculum. In the low initial inoculum level, the pathogen [Salmonella] was only detected after enrichment at storage day 0, exhibiting absence afterwards until the end of storage period. In the medium inoculum level, the pathogen [Salmonella] was detected after enrichment until the end of the products shelf life (i.e. 5 days) and increased afterwards until the end of the storage period (i.e. 9 days), while in the high inoculum level, the pathogen [Salmonella] population increased during storage. |
| Aryani, D. C., Zwietering, M. H., and den Besten, H. M. W. 2016. The effect of different matrices on the growth kinetics and heat resistance of Listeria monocytogenes and Lactobacillus plantarum. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 238:326. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ham (commercially and in-house produced) | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Lactic acid, nitrite) pH control | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Water bath heating time: 20 to 40 sec Temperature: Storage temperature: 7°C Heating temperature: 65°C Concentration: Commercial ham: · Sodium nitrite: present · Lactic acid: 0.21 mM In-house produced ham: · Sodium nitrite: absent · Lactic acid: 1.24 mM Water Activity: 0.967-0.968 pH: 6.7 (commercial ham); 6.0 (in-house produced ham) Spatial Configuration: Commercial ham was 1.0 mm thick, while control cooked ham was 0.5 mm thick Other: Ham slices were irradiated prior to inoculation | Concentration: Lactic acid concentration pH: pH of ham Other: Strain of L. monocytogenes | The growth of various L. monocytogenes strains in hams (either commercial ham or an in-house produced hams) with different formulations were tested and compared to a model developed on laboratory media data or to literature data. All three L. monocytogenes strains also grew better in commercial ham than in in-house produced ham because of the higher pH and lower lactic acid concentration of the commercial ham. The high pH of the commercial ham is believed to have prevented the nitrite in that formulation from having an effect on L. monocytogenes growth. The growth for L. monocytogenes in ham generally were within the 95% confidence intervals of the gamma model. Large strain variations contributed to wide confidence bands, however. |
| Badvela MK, Dickson JS, Sebranek JG, Schroeder WD (2016) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by buffered dry vinegar in reduced-sodium ready-to-eat uncured turkey stored at 4 degrees C. J Food Prot 79 (8):1396-1403. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Sliced, reduced-sodium, uncured deli-style turkey breast | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Buffered dry vinegar) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 12 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · 0.4% or 0.8% buffered dry vinegar (BDV) with a sodium base (SB) · 0.5% or 0.9% BDV with a potassium base (PB) · In addition to the BDV, all brines used on the turkey contained 1.4% salt to provide 1.4% salt in the final product Humidity: 100% RH when slices were vacuum packaged Water Activity: 0.9796 to 0.9840 pH: 6.27 to 6.34 Product Coverage: In formulation Spatial Configuration: Slices of turkey were approximately 15 cm in diameter and weighed ~25 g Other: Inoculated slices were vacuum packaged Moisture content: 75.23 to 75.93% Fat content: 0.50% to 0.62% Protein content: 17.48 to 18.33% | Time: Storage time Concentration: Concentration of buffered dry vinegar used in brine | Dry vinegar ingredients which resulted in 6.66 to 8.83 mM acetic acid in the finished product (the 0.6 to 0.8% BDV-SB and the 0.7 and 0.9% BDV-PB) inhibited L. monocytogenes (<1 log) growth in reduced-sodium turkey stored at 4°C. |
| Bang, W., Hanson, D. J., and Drake, M. A. 2008. Effect of salt and sodium nitrite on growth and enterotoxin production of Staphylococcus aureus during the production of air-dried fresh pork sausage. J. Food Prot. 71:191. | NHT/SS | Air-dried fresh country pork sausage | Pork | Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (Salt, sodium nitrite) | Inhibition of pathogen growth Prevention of toxin production | Time: Drying time: 10 days Temperature: Drying temperature: 21°C Concentration: In formulation: · Sodium nitrite: 154 ppm · Salt: 1.76 to 3.64% (in dried sausages) Humidity: During drying: 60% RH Water Activity: Initial water activity: 0.98 Final water activity: 0.97 pH: Initial pH: 5.99 Final pH: 5.57 Spatial Configuration: Inoculum was mixed with sausage batter before stuffing into a 30 mm natural small intestine hog casing Other: Fat content: 17.3% in dried sausages | Temperature: (Drying temperature was below the optimal temperature for Staphylococcal enterotoxin production) | Air-dried fresh country pork sausage is a non-RTE meat product that was tested for its ability to support S. aureus growth and enterotoxin during its manufacturing process (specifically, the drying step). Three formulations were tested: 1.76% salt without nitrite; 2.24% salt plus 154 ppm sodium nitrite; and 3.4% salt without nitrite. Sodium nitrite and salt did not prevent S. aureus from growing. However, none of the sausages produced enterotoxin during the drying period. During the 10 days of drying, the S. aureus numbers increased by 2.5 (2.24% salt with nitrite) to 3.1 log (high salt formulation), although these differences were not significant. Core and surface counts were similar. |
| Batpho K, Boonsupthip W, Rachtanapun C (2017) Antimicrobial activity of collagen casing impregnated with nisin against foodborne microorganisms associated with ready-to-eat sausage. Food Control 73 (Part B):1342-1352. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat Vienna pork sausage | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobial (Collagen casing impregnated with nisin) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Nisin impregnation vacuum time: 150 to 600 sec · Nisin impregnation atmospheric time: 30 to 90 sec · Sausage storage time: up to 90 days Temperature: Nisin impregnation temperature: Sausage storing temperature: 4 to 10°C Concentration: · 10,000 ppm nisin solution was used to impregnate the collagen casing under pressure · The sausage formulation contained 0.12% sodium nitrite Spatial Configuration: Collagen casing was 17 mm in diameter. See paper for more details on casing preparation. Pressure: The nisin solution was impregnated in the casing at ~680 mmHg Other: Sausages were vacuum packaged in nylon pouches for storage. | Time: · Vacuum and atmospheric time · Sausage storage time Concentration: · Nisin concentration used to impregnate casing | The growth of Listeria monocytogenes was inhibited in sausages in nisin-impregnated casings (impregnated at 300 sec vacuum time and 30 sec atmospheric time) for at least 90 days at 4°C and 49 days at 10°C. Levels of Lm were slightly reduced relative to baseline at some points during storage. Vacuum impregnation of nisin into casings is faster and appears to be more effective at inhibiting Lm growth on sausages than is soaking the casing in nisin solutions. |
| Blagojevic, B., Antic, D., Adzic, B., Tasic, T., Ikonic, P., and Buncic, S. 2015. Decontamination of incoming beef trimmings with hot lactic acid solution to improve microbial safety of resulting dry fermented sausages - A pilot study. Food Contr. 54:144. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented Beef sausages (Sudzuk) | Beef | E. coli O57 Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Lactic acid-hot water treatment of beef trimmings used to make sausages) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Inoculation time (submersion): 10 sec, followed by 10 to 15 min of draining before lactic acid washes · Time of hot lactic acid wash: 10 to 30 sec · Sausage processing: o 1st day 20° C/92% o 2nd day 19° C/86% o 3rd day 18° C/80% o 4th day 17 °C/72% o 5th to 20th day 16° C/65% Temperature: · Chilling temperature before inoculation: 2°C · Temperature of hot lactic acid wash: 80 to 90°C · Sausage processing: see Time above Concentration: · 4% lactic acid in water for washes · All formulations contained sodium nitrite and salt at the same levels Humidity: See Time above Water Activity: · 0.978-0.979 on Day 0 · 0.790 to 0.816 on Day 20 pH: · 5.21 to 5.59 on Day 0 · 5.14 to 5.35 on Day 20 Product Coverage: Beef trimmings were submerged in the hot lactic acid solution Spatial Configuration: ~300 g pieces were inoculated and immersed in the hot lactic acid treatments Other: A starter culture of 3 Lactobacillus sakei strains was used | Time: Hot water wash time Temperature: Hot water wash temperature Concentration: Lactic acid in wash | Without any washes of the trimmings, the levels of pathogens naturally decrease during the processing of dry fermented sausages. Does washing the trim used to make the sausages in a hot lactic acid solution result in further reductions? The use of hot lactic acid decontamination treatments of incoming beef significantly reduced E. coli O157 and Salmonella counts (but not L. monocytogenes) and prevented accumulation of toxic biogenic amines in resultant raw, fermented, dried sausages. Fatty tissue added to sausage batter (10%) could not be HLA-decontaminated for technological reasons, and it is not known whether nor how much it contributed to initial contamination of the sausage batter, or if its contaminating microbiota diminished the pathogen-reduction effects of the HLA-based beef treatments as observed in finished sausages. The overall sensorial quality of finished sausages produced with HLA-decontaminated beef was somewhat reduced, but, importantly, remained in the acceptable category as long as the shorter duration HLA-treatment was used. |
| Boskovic M, Tadic V, Dordevic J, Glisic M, Lakicevic B, Dimitrijevic M, Bailic MZ, Iop (2017) Effect of starter cultures on survival of Listeria monocytogenes in Cajna sausage. In: 59th International-Meat-Industry Conference (MEATCON), Serbia, Oct 01-04 2017. IOP Conference Series-Earth and Environmental Science. Iop Publishing Ltd, BRISTOL. | NHT/SS | Čajna sausage, a dry fermented Serbian sausage | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Starter cultures: Mixture of Lactobacillus sakei, Staphylococcus carnosus, and Staphylococcus xylosus (Biostart Sprint) Or Mixture of Debaryomyces hansenii, Lactobacillus sakei, Pediococcus acidilactici, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Staphylococcus carnosus, and Staphylococcus xylosus (BACTOFERM B-LC007) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Cold smoke time: 8 hours during 3 days at 21-23°C · Drying time: 18 days · Storage time: Temperature: · Cold smoke temperature: 21-23°C · Drying temperature: 17°C Concentration: Formulation contained 2.1% salt containing 0.6% sodium nitrite Humidity: · Cold smoke humidity was 80-85% RH · Drying was conducted under 75% RH Water Activity: · Starting aw: 0.968 · Ending aw: 0.909 to 0.912 pH: · Starting pH: 6.03 to 6.05 · Ending pH: 5.16 to 5.28 Product Coverage: Starter culture was mixed into sausage batter Spatial Configuration: 34 mm diameter collagen casings were used; sausages weighed about 450 g each Other: Formulation contained 25% pig fat | Time: Total fermentation time Temperature: Temperature during first 48 hours of fermentation | Following 18 days of drying time, Lm levels were below detection limits in all sausages, including those with and those without the starter cultures. The decrease in Lm levels between days 7 and 14 was significantly slower, however, when no starter culture was added. The rapid inactivation during the first 48 hours of fermentation may have been because of the relatively high (>20°C) temperature during this time period. |
| Bozkurt H, D'Souza DH, Davidson PM (2015) Thermal Inactivation Kinetics of Human Norovirus Surrogates and Hepatitis A Virus in Turkey Deli Meat. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 81 (14):4850-4859. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Pre-sliced, oven-roasted turkey deli meat | Turkey | Human norovirus (HNoV) surrogates (murine norovirus 1 and feline calicivirus strain F9) Hepatitis A virus (HAV) | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Heat treatment up to 6 min Come-up time: 21 to 32 seconds Cooling time after heat treatment: 15 min Temperature: Product temperature: 50 to 72°C Cooling treatment after heat treatment: on ice (0°C) Spatial Configuration: Tested samples (~6 g) were 3 cm in diameter, 2 mm in thickness; virus was inoculated on the surface of the meat Other: Samples were vacuum sealed to 100 kPa prior to heating by immersion in a water bath. | Time: Time at temperature Temperature: Product temperature | Heating to 50°C for 6 min resulted in <1 log reduction in viral numbers for all viral surrogates tested. Heating at 65 or 72°C resulted in total inactivation of the HNoV surrogates but not for HAV. D values were calculated for all viruses within the 50 to 72°C temperature range. Predictive models (Weibull based) were able to successfully describe thermal inactivation of the viruses on the turkey meat. Thermal treatments that inactivate bacterial pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes do not appear to be sufficient to inactivate these viruses on deli turkey meat. |
| Byrne, B., Dunne, G., and Bolton, D. J. 2006. Thermal inactivation of Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens vegetative cells and spores in pork luncheon roll. Food Microbiol. 23:803. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Cured pork luncheon roll | Pork | Bacillus cereus spores and vegetative cells Clostridium perfringens spores and vegetative cells | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Cooking time: up to 60 min in a temperature-controlled water bath Temperature: · Water bath cooking temperatures: 50 to 100°C · Ice-bath temperature (to stop cooking in samples): 2°C Concentration: (Pork roll manufacture was described in a different paper; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.03.011) Spatial Configuration: 10 g samples, packaged into 7 x 13 cm polyethylene bags and compressed into a thin layer (1-2 cm) and heat sealed | Time: Cooking time Temperature: Cooking temperature | The D-values for vegetative cells ranged from 1 min (60°C) to 33.2 min (50°C) for B. cereus and from 0.9 min (65°C) to 16.3 min (55°C) for C. perfringens. The D-values for B. cereus spores ranged from 2.0 min (95°C) to 32.1 min (85°C) and from 2.2 min (100°C) to 34.2 min (90°C) for C. perfringens. The D-values of B. cereus and C. perfringens suggest that a mild cook of 70°C for 12 s and 1.3 min would achieve a 6 log reduction of B. cereus and C. perfringens vegetative cells, respectively. The equivalent reduction of B. cereus and C. perfringens spores would require the pork luncheon meat to be heated for 36 s at 105 and 110°C, respectively. The results of this study provide the thermal inactivation data necessary to design a cooking protocol for pork luncheon roll that would inactivate B. cereus and C. perfringens vegetative cells and spores. |
| Christiansen LN, Foster EM (1965) Effect of vacuum packaging on growth of Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus in cured meats. Applied Microbiology 13 (6):1023-5. | HT/NSS | Sliced cured bologna or chopped ham | Pork | Clostridium botulinum Staphylococcus aureus | Packaging (Vacuum packaging) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin production | Time: Storage time up to 18 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 22 to 37°C Spatial Configuration: In some trials the inoculum was smeared onto a sliced with a stack of slices; in other trials, it was located on the top of the stack next to the packaging. Other: · Vacuum packaging was 6 x 7 inch Flexar 12 pouches made of 0.0005-inch Mylar polyester film/0.0001-inch Saran coating/0.002-inch polyethylene, evacuated to 15 mm Hg and heat sealed. · Packaging without vacuum involved two or more sliced of meat positioned on waxed cardboard and wrapped in a single thickness of 60-gauge Saran wrap; the wrap was heat sealed but was not air-tight. | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Other: Vacuum packaging | Vacuum packaging did not affect the rate of botulinum toxin development in bologna, but greatly inhibited the growth of S. aureus. |
| Christieans, S., Picgirard, L., Parafita, E., Lebert, A., and Gregori, T. 2018. Impact of reducing nitrate/nitrite levels on the behavior of Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes in French dry fermented sausages. Meat Sci. 137:160. | NHT/SS | French dry fermented sausages (saucisson menage | Pork | Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Nitrate and nitrite) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Fermentation time: 6 days · Drying time: 28 days · Storage time: 60 days Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 24°C, gradually reduced to 16°C · Drying temperature: 13-14°C · Storage temperature: 18°C Concentration: In formulations: · Sodium chloride: 26 g/kg · Sodium nitrite: 0 to 120 ppm · Potassium nitrate: 80 to 250 ppm, expressed as sodium nitrate equivalents Humidity: · Fermentation humidity: 94 to 96%, gradually reduced to 88 to 90% · Drying humidity: 80 to 82% Water Activity: · Initial batter: 0.97 · After drying: 0.89 to 0.90 pH: · Initial batter: 5.85 to 5.94 · After fermentation: 5.05 · After drying: 5.3 to 5.4 Spatial Configuration: Batter was inoculated with pathogens and stuffed into natural casings (30-40 mm diameter) Other: · Sausages were surface inoculated with a Penicillium suspension prior to drying | Concentration: Nitrite, salt Water activity | This study tested various levels of nitrate and nitrite for their ability to reduce Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes numbers in French fermented dry sausages. Our results pointed to the beginning of the fermentation as a critical step which could promote the growth of Listeria and Salmonella in French dry fermented sausage. Both pathogens were affected by the nitrate/nitrite formulation. Adding nitrite limits Salmonella and Listeria growth during this stage. Thus, the presence of nitrite together with hurdles encountered during drying (low aw, high salt concentration) resulted in control of the pathogens. In the presence of nitrate alone, despite the hurdles, both pathogens could not be inhibited due to the slow conversion of nitrate to nitrite. Thus, nitrite was a relevant hurdle to control Salmonella and Listeria in French dry fermented sausages. A47% reduction of the nitrite concentration provided the same sanitary effect against Salmonella and Listeria as the regulatory dose. |
| Consigliere, R., Meloni, D., and Mazzette, R. 2018. Key hurdles in the Mediterranean-style dry fermented sausage Salsiccia Sarda as influenced by different ingredients related to product safety. J. Food Process. Pres. 42:8. | NHT/SS | Mediterranean-style dry fermented sausage Salsiccia Sarda | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Water activity control (Drying) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: See paper for different fermentation , ripening, and drying conditions Temperature: See paper for different fermentation , ripening, and drying conditions Concentration: All formulations contained 2300 g/100 kg sodium chloride, 100 g/100 kg sodium ascorbate, 15 g/100 kg sodium nitrite, and 15g/100 kg potassium nitrate. Some formulations contained Humidity: See paper for different fermentation , ripening, and drying conditions Water Activity: First day of fermentation: 0.98 Final water activity: 0.88 to 0.90 pH: First day of fermentation: 5.8 Final pH: 5.12 to 5.36 Spatial Configuration: Sausages were made in natural bovine casings of about 43 to 46 mm diameter | Water activity or weight loss | Weight loss, pH and aw were evaluated as ripening monitoring tool. Predictive mathematical models to evaluate the survival of Listeria monocytogenes complemented the present study. The evolution of aw and weight loss to values capable to support product’s safety was shown to be closely related and was validated as a simple and effective monitoring tool of the Critical Control Point ripening. Based on the fermented sausage characteristics, Salsiccia Sarda at the end of ripening is unable to support the growth of the pathogen. The aw and the weight loss evolution were shown to be closely related: according to the literature and the regulations, at a weight loss of 33%, the sausages prepared with all recipes showed aw values able to support product’s safety. |
| Cordeiro RP, Luciano FB, Holley RA (2013) Evaluation of deodorized yellow mustard concentrations for control of Escherichia coli O157:H7 viability in dry fermented sausage. Food Control 33 (1):20-24. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausage | Beef and pork | E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Deodorized [autoclaved] yellow mustard) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 3 days · Drying time: 32 days · Storage temperature: 4°C Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 26°C · Drying temperature: 14°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · 2% and 4% (w/w) deodorized mustard · 1% each (w/w) deodorized and hot mustard (2% total) · 2% each (w/w) deodorized and hot mustard (4% total) · Formulation also contained nitrite and salt · Starter culture was also used. Humidity: 75% RH during drying Water Activity: 0.97 prior to fermentation; between 0.85 and 0.83 at day 42. pH: 5.7 to 5.8 prior to fermentation; <5 within 48 hours; 4.6 to 4.9 at day 42 Product Coverage: Mustard was added to formulation Spatial Configuration: Sausages weight ~500 g each Other: Sausages were vacuum packaged during storage | Time: Fermentation, drying, and storage time Concentration: Concentration of mustard and whether or not it was deodorized (autoclaved) Although not studied in this report, the process temperature, humidity, final pH and water activity, and use of starter culture will affect pathogen numbers in the sausage. | At day 42, sausages formulated with no autoclaved mustard resulted showed a 2-log reduction of E. coli O157:H7, while 2% mustard (autoclaved or a 1:1 mixture of autoclaved and hot) achieved >4 log reductions. The 4% autoclaved mustard reduced E. coli O157:H7 numbers by >5 logs by day 28, while surprisingly, the 1:1 mixture of autoclaved vs. hot mustard took longer to reduce the pathogen by 5 log. 2% or 4% mustard did not affect starter culture numbers. |
| Coroller L, Jeuge S, Couvert O, Christieans S, Ellouze M (2015) Extending the gamma concept to non-thermal inactivation: A dynamic model to predict the fate of Salmonella during the dried sausages process. Food Microbiology 45:266-275. | NHT/SS | Dried sausages | Pork | Salmonella | pH control (Fermentation and production of lactic acid) Water activity control (Drying) Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 46 hrs · Drying time: 674 hrs Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 16 to 24 hrs · Drying temperature: 13 to 14°C Concentration: · Salt concentration: 24 to 28 g/kg · Sugar concentration: 5 to 8 g/kg dextrose; 0 to 10 g/kg lactose · Nitrate: 0.3 g/kg Humidity: · Fermentation RH: 75 to 96% · Drying RH: 73 to 82% Water Activity: 0.97 initially; 0.85 at end of drying step pH: 4.5 (fast starter) or 5.0 (moderate starter) by day 5 of the drying step; from days 5 to 35 of drying, the pH increased by 0.2 to 0.3 units. Spatial Configuration: Sausages weighed 450 g Other: · Batter contained 80% lean pork and 20% derinded backfat · Batter particle size was 6 mm in diameter · Starter cultures: Texel SA201 (moderate acidifying) or Texel SA306 (fast acidifying) added at 106 CFU/g · Natural casings were used · Penicillium surface suspension was used on surface of fresh-made sausages prior to ripening and drying. | Temperature: Storage temperature Time: Storage time pH (including lactic acid formation produced by the starter culture) Water activity | This study expanded upon a Salmonella growth and inactivation model developed earlier by the same authors. They sought to understand both the initial growth of the Salmonella in the fresh sausages and the subsequent reduction in numbers during fermentation and drying. Decreases in Salmonella of 4 log CFU/g were obtained with the fast starter, while greater reductions (>6 log CFU/g) were observed with the moderate starter. Salt concentration at the levels tested did not affect Salmonella growth or reduction. |
| Daminelli, P., Dalzini, E., Cosciani-Cunico, E., Finazzi, G., D'Amico, S., and Losio, M. N. 2014. Prediction of the maximal growth rate of Listeria monocytogenes in sliced mortadella by the square root type model. Ital. J. Food Sci. 26:261. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Mortadella | Pork | Listeria monoctygoenes | Temperature control (Refrigeration) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 60 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 8°C Concentration: The formulation contained sodium chloride, polyphosphate, and sodium nitrite at unspecified levels. Water Activity: · Day 0: 0.968 to 0.970 · Day 60: 0.969 to 0.972 pH: · Day 0: 6.18 to 6.22 · Day 60: 6.12 to 6.01 Spatial Configuration: Vacuum packed trays containing 100 g of sliced mortadella; L. monocytogenes was inoculated on the top surface and spread over the entire surface. Other: · The pork used to make the mortadella contained 30% fat · Inoculated trays of mortadella were vacuum packaged before storage | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature | This study was not an intervention study; it instead assessed how quickly Listeria monocytogenes would grow on mortadella that was stored at a slightly abusive (8°C) refrigeration temperature. This data was then used to develop models for L. monocytogenes growth under these conditions. L. monocytogenes grew rapidly on vacuum-packaged mortadella that was stored at 8°C. The maximum specific growth rate varied between 0.035/h and 0.044/h with a doubling rate of 15.75 to 19.8. Within 5 days, L. monocytogenes levels were >100 CFU/g, while within 21-27 day, the level was up to 8 log CFU/g. A Ratowsky model was developed which suggests how the maximum specific growth rate changes with temperature. The model predicted that the doubling time at 2°C would be 99 hours, while at 4°C it would be 43.8 hours, at 6°C it would be 24.8 hours, and at 12°C it would be 8.2 hours. |
| Dawson PL, Carl GD, Acton JC, Han IY (2002) Effect of lauric acid and nisin-impregnated soy-based films on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes on turkey bologna. Poult Sci 81 (5):721-726. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Sliced turkey bologna | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Soy films impregnated with lauric acid and/or nisin) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 21 days storage Temperature: Storage temperature of 4°C Concentration: Within soy films, lauric acid concentration was 8% (wt/wt) and 2.5% nisin concentration was 4% (wt/wt) Contact Time: Soy films remained in place during storage Product Coverage: Bologna pieces were inoculated, then the antimicrobial containing film was placed on top of the slice and stored in a petri dish. Spatial Configuration: Turkey bologna slices were 2 mm thick and cut into 6 cm squares for tests. Soy films were 6 cm squares also. | Time: Storage time Concentration: Concentration of lauric acid or nisin in films | The ability of soy films, impregnated with lauric acid and/or nisin, to reduce the growth of L. monocytogenes on turkey bologna during storage for 3 weeks at 4°C was tested. Compared to control films without antimicrobials, lauric acid-containing film resulted in a full log reduction in Lm levels after 21 days storage. Films containing nisin or nisin + lauric acid resulted in a 1.5 log reduction in Lm levels relative to control films |
| de Oliveira TLC, Soares RD, Ramos EM, Cardoso MD, Alves E, Piccoli RH (2011) Antimicrobial activity of Satureja montana L. essential oil against Clostridium perfringens type A inoculated in mortadella-type sausages formulated with different levels of sodium nitrite. International Journal of Food Microbiology 144 (3):546-555. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Mortadella-type sausages | Pork and beef | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Satureja montana L. essential oil [EO], nitrite) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Storage time: 30 days Temperature: · Storage temperature: 25°C Concentration: · Nitrite: 0 to 200 ppm in formulation · NaCl: 1.9% · Ascorbic acid: 0.05% · EO: 0 to 3.125% in formulation Water Activity: 0.941 at packing pH: 6.29 at packing Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were added to batter Other: · C. perfringens was inoculated as a culture (cells) to 7 log CFU/g | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Nitrite concentration EO concentration | This study looked at the effects of different levels and combinations of nitrite and winter savory (Satureja montana L.) essential oil (EO) on the growth of C. perfringens in mortadella sausage during storage at 25°C. Control sausages (without nitrite and without EO) showed a rapid increase and then gradual decline in C. perfringens levels over 30 days of storage at 25°C. Essential oils without nitrite showed a dose-dependent effect on C. perfringens, with the highest level (3.125%) resulting in a reduction of >4 log CFU/g after 24 hours of storage. Nitrite alone at either concentration resulted in a significant drop in C. perfringens counts relative to control after the first day of storage. Populations decreased to ~2 log CFU/g after 30 days of storage, with a faster decline at 200 ppm. Combinations of nitrite and EO generally showed greater reductions than nitrite alone. EO did not affect spore numbers when added to sausage containing nitrite. |
| De Souza, J., Ahmed, R., Strange, P., Barbut, S., and Balamurugan, S. 2018. Effect of caliber size and fat level on the inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in dry fermented sausages. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 266:167. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausages | Pork and beef | E. coli O157:H7 | pH control (Fermentation) Water activity control (Drying) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation/curing: 5 days · Drying: 48 days Temperature: · Fermentation/curing: 26°C to 14°C; see paper for details · Drying temperature: 14°C Concentration: All sausages in study contained the same levels of salt and cure in their formulation: · Salt: 2.98% w/w · Sodium ascorbate: 0.05% w/w · Sodium nitrate: 0.0104% w/w · Sodium nitrite: 0.0104% w/w Humidity: · Fermentation/curing: 88% to 75% · Drying temperature: 75% Water Activity: <0.9 after 6, 13, or 27 days of drying for small, medium, and large caliber sausages pH: · At beginning of fermentation: 5.9 · 24 hours later: 5.0 · After 3 days of fermentation: 4.9 · slight but non-significant increase during drying · (no differences between formulations) Product Coverage: E. coli O157:H7 strains were added to the batter Spatial Configuration: Product caliber size: 32, 55, and 80 mm with lengths of approximately 100, 150, and 200 mm; fibrous cellulose casings were used Other: · Fat content: 9.67 and 18.46% · Stuffed casings were clipped shut using metal clips | Water activity Spatial configuration: (Caliber size) Other: Fat level | This study tested the effects of different caliper size and fat content on the pH, water activity, and survival of E. coli O157:H7 in dry fermented sausages. During the fermentation stage there was a significant and rapid reduction in E. coli O157:H7 counts by about 1.1- to 1.4-log units, but was not significantly different among sausages of different caliber size and fat levels. …during the drying of the sausages, log reduction rate of E. coli O157:H7 was significantly (P< 0.01) lower in sausages with larger caliber sizes and higher fat levels. For instance, log reduction rates for E. coli O157:H7 in high fat large caliber sausages was the lowest at −0.082 ± 0.004 log CFU/g/day compared to all other fat and caliber size combinations. These results suggest that DFS manufacturers producing higher fat and large caliber size products need to consider longer drying periods to achieve the required 5-log inactivation of E. coli O157:H7. |
| DeGeer SL, Wang LX, Hill GN, Singh M, Bilgili SF, Bratcher CL (2016) Optimizing application parameters for lactic acid and sodium metasilicate against pathogens on fresh beef, pork and deli meats. Meat Sci 118:28-33. | Fresh meats (not RTE) FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Fresh beef (bottom rounds), pork ham steaks, roast beef, ham and turkey deli meats | Beef Pork Turkey | E. coli O157:H7 Non-O157 Shiga-toxin producing E. coli (STEC) Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (Lactic acid, sodium metasilicate) Heat treatment (post-packaging heat treatment by hot water dip) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Time of antimicrobial application: 30 min · Time for post-packaging heat treatment of deli meats: 2 min Temperature: · Temperature of application of antimicrobials: 4 to 60°C · Post-packaging heat treatment of deli meats: 90.6°C Concentration: · Lactic acid (LA): 1 to 5% · Sodium metasilicate (SM): 2 to 5% pH: · Sodium lactate (4%): 1.84 · Sodium metasilicate (4%): 12.82 Contact Time: 30 min Product Coverage: Meat surfaces were inoculated by spreading the cocktail cultures over surface. After 30 minutes, the antimicrobial treatments (10mL) were applied over the surface. Spatial Configuration: 100 cm2 pieces Other: Deli meats that were heat-treated were vacuum packaged before treatment. | Time: Time of heat treatment (hot water dip) Temperature: Temperature of heat treatment (hot water dip) Concentration: LA or SM concentration | This study tested the efficacy of lactic acid or sodium metasilicate to reduce various pathogen levels on a variety of fresh and processed meat products as a post-packaging lethality treatment. In general, increasing concentrations of LA or SM resulted in increasing reductions (up to 1.5 to 2 log) of the pathogens on fresh beef after 30 minutes of contact time, although only the highest SM concentration reduced L. monocytogenes levels. A 4% solution of either LA or SM was effective against E. coli O157:H7, STEC, or Salmonella on fresh beef and pork ham steaks. On deli meats, both LA and SMA decreased E. coli O157:H7, STEC, and Salmonella counts relative to controls. However, treating with 4% LA or SM was not effective against L. monocytogenes. Post-packaging heat treatment by hot water dip decreased L. monocytogenes counts on deli meat samples. LA or SM alone were more effective than a combination, possibly because the basicity of the SM neutralizes the acidity of the LA. The temperature of application of the antimicrobials (4 to 60°C) did not impact the efficacy against pathogens. |
| D'Sa, E. M., Harrison, M. A., Williams, S. E., and Broccoli, M. H. 2000. Effectiveness of two cooking systems in destroying Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in ground beef patties. J. Food Prot. 63:894. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ground beef patties | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatments, including double-sided grilling-broiling [DGB] vs. single-sided broiling [SSB]) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Cooking time to reach an internal temperature of 60 or 68°C: 4.48 to 15.76 min · Holding time: none Temperature: · Target internal temperature of 60 or 68°C · Actual internal temperature was 71.2°C and 75.8°C on DGB; 62.7 and 69.3°C for SSB · Surface temperature of SSB: 129.9°C · DGB grill temperature: 176.6 and quartz hood temperature of 815°C · Temperature when patties were flipped during cooking: internal temperature of 30 or 34°C Spatial Configuration: 110 g patties molded in 9.3 cm diameter, 15 mm high petri dish lids Equipment Settings: Equipment types included a double-sided grilling-broiling system (DGB) or a single-sided broiling system (SSB) Other: · Beef contained 14.69% fat; 64.68% moisture content · Position of patty on grill · After cook weight: 75.24 to 85.63 g · Cook loss (%): 22 to 31.5 | Temperature: Target and actual internal temperatures Equipment settings: Equipment type (DGB vs. SSB) | The DGB reduced E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes populations in ground beef patties by 5.7 log10 and 5.4 log10 CFU/g, respectively, when cooked to a target temperature of 60°C (actual final internal temperature of 71.2°C) and by 6.1 log10 and 5.6 log10 CFU/g, respectively, when cooked to a target temperature of 68°C. The SSB reduced E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes populations by 1.3 log10 and 1.8 log10 CFU/ g, respectively, when cooked to a target temperature of 60°C (actual final internal temperature of 62.7°C) and by 2.9 log10 and 3.6 log10 CFU/g, respectively, when cooked to a target temperature of 68°C (actual final internal temperature of 69.3°C). The DGB system effected a higher, more rapid temperature increase in patties cooked to either target temperature compared to the SSB system. This higher temperature was more effective in destroying pathogens in beef patties. |
| Du LH, Liu F, Zhao P, Zhao T, Doyle MP (2017) Characterization of Enterococcus durans 152 bacteriocins and their inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in ham. Food Microbiology 68:97-103. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Fully cooked deli ham made from fresh center cut pork loins | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Enterococcus durans bacteriocins Dur (152A and enterocin L50B) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Storage time: up to 10 weeks Temperature: · Storage temperature: 8 to 15°C Concentration: · Nitrite: in ham formulation, concentration not specified · Nisin: 500 ppm = 1600 AU/mL · E. durans bacteriocins: 200 to 400AU/mL Product Coverage: Bacteriocins or nisin were applied in 0.5 mL and spread on ham surface Spatial Configuration: Deli ham samples 10 cm in diameter and 17 g in weight Other: · L. monocytogenes was inoculated onto the ham surface after the bacteriocins or nisin treatment had dried | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of bacteriocins | This study tested the ability of two bacteriocins (produced by a bacteria isolated from a floor drain in a food facility) to inhibit the growth of deli ham when stored under abusive storage conditions. The negative control ham (no nisin, no bacteriocins) showed >6 log/g of L. monocytogenes growth when stored for 7 weeks at 8°C or 21 days at 15°C. No growth was observed for ham treated with either 200 or 400 AU/mL bacteriocins when stored for 10 weeks at 8°C. When the higher level of bacteriocins was used (400 AU/mL), no growth was observed during 30 days storage at 15°C. Nisin (which is approved in the U.S., but at half the level tested here) prevented L. monocytogenes growth for 18 days at 15°C and for 7 weeks at 8°C. At the time of this writing, the E. durans bacteriocins used in this study are not approved as food additives in the U.S. |
| Echeverry, A., Brooks, J. C., Miller, M. F., Collins, J. A., Loneragan, G. H., and Brashears, M. M. 2009. Validation of intervention strategies to control Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104 in mechanically tenderized and brine-enhanced beef. J. Food Prot. 72:1616. | Raw | Mechanically tenderized and brine-enhanced beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 | Antimicrobials (Lactic acid, lactic acid bacteria, and acidified sodium chlorite) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Time after inoculation before spraying: 1 hour · Drip time after spraying: 5 min · Aging time: 14 or 21 days · Storage time after tenderization/brining: 0 to 14 days Temperature: · Spraying temperature: room temperature · Aging and storage temperature: refrigeration temperature · Brine temperature: 2 to 4°C Concentration: · Lactic acid bacteria (4.70 x 107 CFU/mL · Acidified sodium chlorite (acidified with powdered citric acid): 1000 to 1200 ppm · Lactic acid: 3% · Brine: 0.3% each sodium chloride and sodium tripolyphosphate pH: · Sterile distilled water: 6.85 · Lactic acid bacteria: 6.85 · Acidified sodium chlorite: 3.36 · 3% lactic acid: 2.21 Spatial Configuration: Steaks were approximately 20.3 x 12.7 x 7.6 cm in size Pressure: Spray pressure: ~138 kPa Equipment Settings: · A 6-nozzle spray cabinet was used · Spraying (after inoculation) was done at a flow rate of 0.42 liters/min · Manual tenderizer (model H, Jaccard, Orchard Park, NY) consisted of 544 stainless steel surgical knives with two-directional sharpness, providing an area of approximately 192 cm2 of tenderization per cycle · Automatic brine injector, Koch Equipment, L.L.C., Kansas City, MO) consisting of 21 needles (4 mm in diameter) operating at 41 strokes per min at a pressure of approximately ~62 kPa. · Brine enhanced samples were pumped to approximately 110% of their original weight. Other: · After dripping, the sprayed steaks were packaged under vacuum in high-barrier Cryovac bags for aging · After tenderization or brining, steaks were vacuum packaged prior to storage | Time: Storage time after mechanical tenderization or enhancement with brine Concentration: Lactic acid bacteria, acidified sodium chloride, or lactic acid in spray | Steaks were inoculated, then sprayed with antimicrobials, aged for 14-21 days, then manually tenderized, or enhanced with brine. The steaks were stored again for 0, 14 or 21 days before microbial analysis. After the mechanical process, translocation of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104 from the surface into the internal muscles occurred at levels between 2.0 and 4.0 log CFU/g (from an initial inoculation level of 5.0 log) after mechanical tenderization, and at levels of 1.0 to 3.0 log CFU/g after injection, with all the interventions consistently presenting lower microbial counts (P <0.05) than did the controls. Lactic acid bacteria reduced internal E. coli O157:H7 loads 1.2 to 2.2 log cycles, while the acidified sodium chlorite and lactic acid reduced them between 0.8 and 3.0 log, respectively. Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104 was also reduced internally after application of all interventions between 0.9 and 2.2 log. The application of antimicrobials to the steaks prior to packaging and shipment on day 0 was effective in reducing internalization of both pathogens in nonintact beef products stored for both 14 and 21 days. |
| Echeverry, A., Brooks, J. C., Miller, M. F., Collins, J. A., Loneragan, G. H., and Brashears, M. M. 2010. Validation of lactic acid bacteria, lactic acid, and acidified sodium chlorite as decontaminating interventions to control Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium dt 104 in mechanically tenderized and brine-enhanced (nonintact) beef at the purveyor. J. Food Prot. 73:2169. | Raw | Mechanically tenderized and brine-enhanced beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 | Antimicrobials (Lactic acid, lactic acid bacteria, and acidified sodium chlorite) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Aging time: 14 or 21 days · Drip time after spraying: 5 min · Storage time after tenderization/brining: 0 to 14 days Temperature: · Aging and storage temperature: 4.4°C · Spraying temperature: 20°C · Brine temperature: 2 to 4°C Concentration: · Lactic acid bacteria (4.70 x 107 CFU/mL · Acidified sodium chlorite (acidified with powdered citric acid): 1000 to 1200 ppm · Lactic acid: 3% · Brine: 0.3% each sodium chloride and sodium tripolyphosphate pH: · Sterile distilled water: 6.85 · Lactic acid bacteria: 6.85 · Acidified sodium chlorite: 3.36 · 3% lactic acid: 2.21 Spatial Configuration: Steaks were approximately 20.3 x 12.7 x 7.6 cm in size Pressure: Spray pressure: ~138 kPa Equipment Settings: · A 6-nozzle spray cabinet was used · Spraying (after inoculation) was done at a flow rate of 0.42 liters/min · Manual tenderizer (model H, Jaccard, Orchard Park, NY) consisted of 544 stainless steel surgical knives with two-directional sharpness, providing an area of approximately 192 cm2 of tenderization per cycle · Automatic brine injector, Koch Equipment, L.L.C., Kansas City, MO) consisting of 21 needles (4 mm in diameter) operating at 41 strokes per min at a pressure of approximately ~62 kPa. · Brine enhanced samples were pumped to approximately 110% of their original weight. Other: · Steaks were packaged under vacuum for aging · After tenderization or brining, steaks were vacuum packaged prior to storage | Time: Day of aging on which antimicrobial is sprayed Concentration: Lactic acid bacteria, acidified sodium chloride, or lactic acid in spray Other: Type of process (mechanical tenderization vs. brine enhancement) | This study is very similar to an earlier study (Echeverry et al., 2009) except in the earlier study, the antimicrobial solutions were applied prior to the aging time (to simulate the meat packer performing this step), while in this study, the antimicrobial solutions were applied after aging (as if the purveyor were doing the application). After the mechanical process, translocation of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104 from the surface into the internal muscles occurred at levels between 1.00 and 5.72 log CFU/g, compared with controls. LAB and LA reduced internal E. coli O157:H7 loads up to 3.0 log, while ASC reduced the pathogen 1.4 to 2.3 log more than the control (P <0.05), respectively. Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104 was also reduced internally 1.3 to 2.8, 1.0 to 2.3, and 1.4 to 1.8 log after application of LAB, LA, and ASC, respectively. The application of antimicrobials by purveyors prior to mechanical tenderization or enhancement of steaks should increase the safety of these types of products. |
| European Commission Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs, 2005, Vol.L 338, p.1-26 | Not specified | Not specified, but RTE dry fermented sausages fit into this category | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | pH control Water activity control | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Water Activity: (see below) pH: (see below) Foods with certain combinations of pH and water activity do not support L. monocytogenes growth: · pH≤ 4.4 and aw ≤ 0.92 · pH≤ 5.0 and aw ≤ 0.94 | Water activity pH | L. monocytogenes growth is not supported in RTE fermented sausages (pH≤ 4.4 and aw ≤ 0.92) or (pH≤ 5.0 and aw ≤ 0.94. |
| Faith, N. G., Parniere, N., Larson, T., Lorang, T. D., Kaspar, C. W., and Luchansky, J. B. 1998. Viability of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 in salami following conditioning of batter, fermentation and drying of sticks, and storage of slices. J. Food Prot. 61:377. | NHT/SS | Salami sticks and slices | Pork and beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Water activity control Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Batter conditioning time: see paper · Fermentation time: until a pH of ≤4.8 was reached (60 to 64 hours) · Drying time: until a moisture/protein ratio of ≤1.9:1 was reached (about 21 days) · Storage time: up to 90 days Temperature: · Batter conditioning temperature: -20°C to 13°C; see paper for details · Fermentation temperature: 24°C · Drying temperature: 13°C · Storage temperature after drying: 4 or 21°C Concentration: · Salt: o In batter: 3.04 o After fermentation: 3.23 o After drying/slicing: 4.41 o After storage: 4.60 to 4.79 Humidity: · Fermentation RH: 90% · Drying RH: 65% Water Activity: · Batter: 0.93 · After fermentation: 0.93 · After drying/slicing: 0.92 · After storage: 0.90 pH: · Batter pH: 5.81 · Fermentation endpoint: ≤4.8 · After drying: 7.80 · After storage: 4.79 to 4.82 Spatial Configuration: · 104 mm diameter fibrous casings were used · After drying, salami were sliced into 15 g slices and packaged in Curlon bags (3-4 slices per bag) Other: · Fat content in batter: ~20% · Salami was stored under air or vacuum | Time: · Batter conditioning time · Storage time Temperature: · Batter conditioning temperature · Storage temperature for slices Other: Storage under air (vs. vacuum) | For salami sticks sampled immediately after drying, appreciable differences were evident among the various batter-conditioning treatments; pathogen [E. coli O157:H7] numbers were reduced from original levels by 2.1, 1.6, or 1.1 log10 units when batter was tempered, frozen, and thawed, frozen and thawed, or refrigerated, respectively. Similarly, regardless of storage temperature or atmosphere, within 7 days salami slices cut from sticks prepared from batter that was tempered, frozen, and thawed (2.7- to 4.9- log10 unit reduction) or frozen and thawed (2.3- to 4.8- log10 unit reduction) displayed a greater impact on pathogen [E. coli O157:H7] numbers than slices cut from sticks prepared from batter that was refrigerated (1.6- to 3.l- log10 unit reduction). The effects of batter conditioning notwithstanding, a greater reduction in levels of E. coli 0157:H7 was observed when slices were stored at 21°C compared to otherwise similar slices stored at 4°C. After storage for 60 days the pathogen was only detected by enrichment in slices stored at 21°C, whereas pathogen levels ranged from 1.4 to 4.5 log10 unit CFU/g in slices stored at 4°C. Differences related to storage atmosphere were first observed after slices were stored for 21 days. Such differences were more readily demonstrable after 60 and 90 days, with pathogen [E. coli O157:H7] numbers for treatments that were statistically different ranging from 0.6- to 1.5- log10 units higher on slices stored under vacuum than in air.’ |
| Felicio, M. T. S., Ramalheira, R., Ferreira, V., Brandao, T., Silva, J., Hogg, T., and Teixeira, P. 2011. Thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes from alheiras, traditional Portuguese sausage during cooking. Food Contr. 22:1960. | NFC/NSS | Traditional Portuguese sausage alheiras | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Cooking time Temperature: Water bath cooking temperature: 55, 60, and 65°C Internal product temperature Water Activity: Not measured for the sausages tested in the study, but usually 0.96 to 0.98 pH: Not measured for the sausages tested in the study, but usually 4.1 to 5.3 Spatial Configuration: Not discussed in paper, but a photo of the sausage shows where temperature probes were inserted. | Time: Until a specified temperature was reached Temperature: · Internal product temperature · Temperature of the product prior to cooking Other: Cooking method | D values of L. monocytogenes isolates from alheiras ranged from 7.2 to 9.3, 1.3 to 2.1 and 0.6 to 1.8 min at 55, 60 and 65 °C respectively. Minimum and maximum internal temperatures were measured during cooking of the sausages by a variety of methods, including frying, grilling, and in ovens. Some cooking methods (frying or grilling) might not be able to activate L. monocytogenes at the minimum internal temperatures that were measured. However, all methods reached sufficient maximum internal temperatures to inactivate L. monocytogenes. The common practice (in taverns) frying alheiras immediately after removal from a freezer may promote cold spots which might allow L. monocytogenes to survive. |
| Figueiredo ACL, Almeida RCC (2017) Antibacterial efficacy of nisin, bacteriophage P100 and sodium lactate against Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat sliced pork ham. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 48 (4):724-729. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat sliced pork ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (nisin, bacteriophage P100, and sodium lactate applied to surfaces of ham slices) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: 0 to 72 hours Temperature: Storage temperature: 6 to 8 °C Concentration: Nisin: 0.0012mg/g Bacteriophage P100: 5 x 105 PFU/g Sodium lactate: 0.5mg/g Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were spread on meat slice surfaces using a sterile glass spreader prior to inoculation Spatial Configuration: 30 g of ham slices | Time: Storage time Concentration: Presence of nisin or bacteriophage P100 | The effect of nisin, bacteriophage P100, and sodium lactate (alone or in combinations) on levels of L. monocytogenes on ham slices (after application and after 72 hours of storage at 6 to 8°C) was tested. For individual antimicrobials, bacteriophage P100 treatment was most effective, decreasing L. monocytogenes to undetectable levels after application and also at 72 hours. Sodium lactate was less effective initially ( <1 log reduction) and did not result in a statistically significant reduction at 72 hours. Nisin was effective at initially reducing L. monocytogenes levels by >2 logs, but showed less reduction (1.67 logs) at 72 hours. Nisin and bacteriophage P100 together, surprisingly, resulted in less efficacy than either agent initially; at 72 hours, however, a ~3 log reduction was observed. Addition of lactate to nisin did not improve efficacy of nisin alone. |
| Foundation for Meat and Poultry Education and Research. Undated. Process lethality spreadsheet. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Meat or poultry products (not suitable for products with large product geometry, rapid, high-temperature cook processes, or complex products) | Beef Pork Chicken Turkey Other (Lamb) | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Various Temperature: Various | Time Temperature | This downloadable spreadsheet will calculate the total log reduction of select pathogens in a meat or poultry product following a thermal cook process. The user needs to enter the organism, the product of concern as well as corresponding T ref (reference temperature), Z- and D-values from challenge studies, the literature, or other reliable sources that are relevant and appropriate for the type of product and the organism. The user then enters at least 20 time/temperature data points into the table. The spreadsheet will determine a cumulative F-value for the process. By dividing that number with the D-value that was entered. The resulting value obtained will equal the total log reduction of the process. It is important to use a D-value that closely matches your food product (pH, salt content, fat content, ground vs. whole muscle, etc.) and the pathogen you are interested in. The T ref does not need to match the target temperature of your cook process. |
| Gande N, Muriana P (2003) Prepackage surface pasteurization of ready-to-eat meats with a radiant heat oven for reduction of Listeria monocytogenes. J Food Prot 66 (9):1623-1630. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat meats (turkey bologna, roast beef, corned beef, ham) | Beef Pork Turkey | Listeria monocytogens | Temperature control (Heat treatment; pre-package radiant heat surface pasteurization and post-package submerged water pasteurization) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Surface pasteurization time: 45 to 120 sec · Water pasteurization time: 45 to 90 sec Temperature: · Oven air temperature during pasteurization: 246 to 399°C · Meat surface temperature during radiant heat pasteurization: 59 to 121°C depending on time/meat type · Water pasteurization temperature: 90.6 to 96.1°C (Muriana et al., 2002) Spatial Configuration: · Roast beef: whole and split rounds · Corned beef: whole logs · Hams: formed and whole muscle · Turkey bologna: 2-lb sections Equipment Settings: Radiant oven (480 V, 30A) had heat settings at dial position 5 (full power) or 4; see paper for additional details regarding the oven and product orientation within oven Other: · Inoculation method used (contact vs. dip) affected levels of reduction observed even though same levels of L. monocytogenes were applied Post-package surface pasteurization used a 50-gallon, steam-injected, temperature-controlled water bath; products were first packaged and vacuum sealed (Muriana et al., 2002) | Time: · Radiant heat surface pasteurization time · Water pasteurization time Temperature: · Oven air temperature · Water pasteurization temperature Spatial configuration Equipment settings: Placement of product in radiant heat oven | This study tested the ability of radiant heat surface pre-package pasteurization (alone, or in combination with post-package submerged water pasteurization) to reduce L. monocytogenes levels on a variety of RTE meat products. Pre-packaging treatment with 60 to 120 sec of radiant heat surface pasteurization at air temperatures of 246 to 399°C resulted in 1.25 to 3.5 log reductions of L. monocytogenes. Combining pre-packaging radiant heat surface pasteurization with post-packaging submerged water pasteurization resulted in greater reductions (up to 4.3 log on turkey bologna). The authors cautioned that measuring surface temperatures may not be adequate in establishing that a process achieves sufficient L. monocytogenes reduction when using radiant heat surface pasteurization. Different surfaces of the meat products may achieve different temperatures. L. monocytogenes reductions when using contact inoculation were greater than when using dip inoculations, presumably due to the ability of the pathogen to infiltrate small cracks and folds in the meat better when using a dip for inoculation. |
| Garcia M, Amalaradjou MAR, Nair MKM, Annamalai T, Surendranath S, Lee S, Hoagland T, Dzurec D, Faustman C, Venkitanarayanan K (2007) Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes on frankfurters by monocaprylin alone or in combination with acetic acid. J Food Prot 70 (7):1594-1599. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Fresh pork-beef skinless frankfurters | Pork and beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Monocaprylin [MC], acetic acid [AA]) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Dip time: 35 seconds · Storage time: 0 through 77 days Temperature: · Dipping solution temperature: 45 or 50°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Frankfurters contained potassium lactate and sodium diacetate at unspecified concentrations. · Antimicrobial dipping solutions: · 1% ethanol (control) · 50 mM MC plus 1% ethanol · 1% AA plus 1% ethanol · 50 mM MC plus 1% AA plus 1% ethanol pH: Dipping solutions: 3.51 to 6.44 Treated frankfurters: 5.83 to 6.35 Contact Time: Dip time was 35 seconds Product Coverage: Frankfurters were dipped by immersion into 500 mL of each antimicrobial solution. Other: Fat content of frankfurters: 20% Frankfurters were vacuum packaged prior to storage | For pathogen reduction: Concentration: Monocaprylin Acetic acid For inhibition of pathogen growth during storage: Time: Storage time Concentration: Monocaprylin Acetic acid | The effect of various antimicrobial dips containing monocaprylin and/or acetic acid) on Listeria monocytogenes present on frankfurters was assessed during and after 70 days of storage at 4°C. Dipping of the frankfurters in the MC or MC+AA antimicrobial solutions at 50°C dipping temperature resulted in significant immediate reductions in L. monocytogenes levels. The L. monocytogenes levels remained reduced overall the entire storage period, with the greatest reduction in counts observed in the combined MC+AA treatment. After 70 days of storage at 4°C, no L. monocytogenes remained on samples dipped in MC+AA at 50°C. When the dipping solution was 45°C, results were qualitatively similar. |
| Garriga, M., Aymerich, M. T., Costa, S., Monfort, J. M., and Hugas, M. 2002. Bactericidal synergism through bacteriocins and high pressure in a meat model system during storage. Food Microbiol. 19:509. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked ham product, blended with water | Pork | Staphylococcus spp. Escherichia coli Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (enterocins A and B, sakacin K, pediocin AcH, or nisin) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · HPP time: 10 min (not including come up and come down times) · Storage time: up to 61 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 17°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Nisin: 1280 AU/g · All other bacteriocins: 1280 AU/g Product Coverage: Bacteriocins (and inocula) were mixed with the blended meat product in pouches before vacuum sealing Spatial Configuration: The cooked ham product was blended 1:3 with distilled water, treated for 10 min at 80°C, and then distributed in 40 g aliquots into plastic pouches which contained the bacteriocins. Pressure: HPP: 400 MPa Other: · Ham product (before blending with water) analysis showed the following: o Moisture: 73.8% o Protein: 17.3% o Fat: 4.8% o Sodium chloride: 1.75% o Sodium nitrate: 33 ppm o Sodium nitrite: 8.5 ppm | Pathogen reduction: Time: HPP time Pressure: HPP pressure Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage: Time: HPP time Pressure: HPP pressure Concentration: Level and type of bacteriocins | Only nisin is currently allowed for use in foods within the U.S. E. coli displayed a 4.5 log10cycle decline 24 h after pressurization (Fig. 1). However, a greater inactivation was recorded (>6 log10) in the treatment where nisin A was included and the number of survivors remained unchanged during the chilled storage. Other bacteriocins did not control E. coli growth during storage. Salmonella spp. numbers were decreased ~6 log upon HPP treatment and did not show any increases during subsequent storage, whether or not a bacteriocins was present. Staphylococcus spp. was least susceptible to HPP treatment, but nisin treatment resulted in lower counts during 4°C storage than did the control or any of the treatments. Listeria levels were reduced by ~6 logs upon HPP treatment, but nisin-treated samples eventually regrew during storage to reach the initial levels (and the level reached by the no-bacteriocin control) |
| Gedela S, Escoubas JR, Muriana PM (2007) Effect of inhibitory liquid smoke fractions on Listeria monocytogenes during long-term storage of frankfurters. J Food Prot 70 (2):386-391. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Frankfurters from various retailers (containing lactate/diacetate) and custom manufactured without lactate/diacetate | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Liquid smoke condensates, including Zesti-B and AM-3 from Mastertaste) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Liquid smoke dipping time: 0 to 90 sec · Storage time: 10 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature for shelf life studies: 1.7°C or 6.1°C Concentration: · Liquid smoke was used full strength · Lactate and diacetate concentrations in formulations were not specified pH: 4.2 to 4.4 for Zesti-B liquid smoke Contact Time: 0 to 90 seconds liquid smoke dipping time Product Coverage: Liquid smoke was applied to surface of frankfurters after their casings were removed; in one experiment, it was applied to frankfurters still in their casings Other: Frankfurters manufactured for study were 30% fat Liquid smoke was applied by dipping or by spraying using either a homemade or a commercial spray apparatus that provided a continuous mist of liquid smoke Frankfurters were stored in vacuum packaged bags after dipping or spraying | Time: · Storage time · Liquid smoke dipping time (for unpeeled frankfurters) Concentration: Presence or absence of full strength liquid smoke | Half of the brands of retail frankfurters tested (all of which contained lactate and diacetate) prevented growth (≤1 log increase) of L. monocytogenes inoculated on the frankfurters for at least 5 weeks storage at 1.7°C, but half of the tested brands allowed growth, in some cases up to 8 log. Even 5 seconds of dipping in or a spray application with Zesti-B liquid smoke on peeled frankfurters was effective at preventing Lm from growing for 10 weeks of storage at 1.7°C. Frankfurters without lactate and diacetate were also tested. Sprayed Zesti-B liquid smoke was effective in controlling Lm inoculated at different levels when stored at 6°C for 10 weeks. When applied to frankfurters still in their casings, AM-3 liquid smoke dips (30 sec or longer) prevented growth for up to 4 weeks. Longer dip times (120 sec) were required to prevent growth for longer storage periods (10 weeks). In some cases, application of liquid smoke to frankfurters was capable of reducing L. monocytogenes numbers to below baseline levels. |
| Gedela S, Gamble RK, Macwana S, Escoubas JR, Muriana PM (2007) Effect of inhibitory extracts derived from liquid smoke combined with postprocess pasteurization for control of Listeria monocytogenes on ready-to-eat meats. J Food Prot 70 (12):2749-2756. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Frankfurters and ready-to-eat meats (deli turkey breast) | Beef Pork Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Post-lethality heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Low phenolic, reduced acid liquid smoke extracts) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Liquid smoke dip time: 1 sec to 2 min · In-bag pasteurization time: 1 min (frankfurters); 30 to 60 sec (deli turkey breast) · Storage time: up to 10 weeks · Radiant pasteurization dwell time: 60 sec Temperature: · In bag pasteurization temperature: 73.9°C (frankfurters) or 93.3°C (deli turkey breast chubs) · Radiant heat pasteurization: 270°C · Storage temperature: 6.1 to 10°C Concentration: · All frankfurters contained nitrite; some contained lactate and or diacetate (LD) · Deli turkey breast did not contain lactate, diacetate, or nitrite Humidity: Dwell Time: Water Activity: pH: · Liquid smoke extracts ranged from 2.0 to 4.85 · Frankfurters w/o LD: 6.2 Contact Time: 1 second to 2 minute dip into antimicrobials Product Coverage: Dipping with liquid smoke ensured complete product coverage Equipment Settings: Radiant pasteurization settings (Infrared Grill) used a high power setting (power setting 4.5, 260 to 280°C air temperature, 480V, 30 amp) Other: Phenolic content of liquid smokes ranged from 0.3 to 22 mg/mL RTE meat products were vacuum packaged during storage | Time: · In bag pasteurization time · Storage time Temperature: · In bag pasteurization temperature · Storage temperature Concentration: The presence of certain liquid smoke extracts | A 2-min dip of LD frankfurters with one smoke extract produced a 0.3 log reduction of Lm, while a 1-min in package pasteurization at 73.9°C resulted in a 2.9 log reduction. The two treatments combined resulted in a 5.3 log reduction, with no recoverable Lm after 3 weeks storage at 10°C. In frankfurters that did not contain LD, a 1 sec smoke extract dip combined with 1-minute pasteurization at 73.9°C resulted in a >4.5 log reduction in Lm, with no recoverable Lm after 10 weeks storage at 6.1°C. Deli turkey breast chubs w/o LD or nitrite treated with a 1 second smoke extract dip and radiant heat pasteurization did not prevent growth, although it was reduced. Deli turkey breast chubs wi/o LD or nitrite that combined a 1-sec smoke extract dip with a 30 to 90 sec. in bag pasteurization (93.3°C) resulted in at least a 2 log reduction in Lm, with no detectable growth during 10 weeks of storage at 6.1°C. Not all liquid smoke extracts were equally effective against Lm; a factor other than the acidity of the liquid smoke appeared to be most important. |
| Genigeorgis, C. A., Meng, J., and Baker, D. A. 1991. Behavior of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum type-B and type-E spores in cooked turkey and modeling lag phase and probability of toxigenesis. J. Food Sci. 56:373. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | RTE turkey products with lower salt levels and no nitrite | Turkey | Clostridium botulinum Type B and E (nonproteolytic, inoculated as spores) | Temperature control (Refrigeration during storage) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage (lag phase) Prevention of toxin production | Time: Storage time: 0 to 180 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 to 30°C Concentration: · Salt: 0 to 2% · (no added nitrite) · Brine concentrations: 0 to 2.31%) Water Activity: · 0% added salt: 0.986 to 0.988 · 1% added salt: 0.980 to 0.981 · 2% added salt: 0.977 to 0.978 pH: Initial pH of samples: 6.2 to 6.3 After storage (not inoculated controls: 6.2 to 6.8 After storage: 5.7 to 6.3 Spatial Configuration: · Composite samples were generated by homogenizing cooked turkey rolls from several lots · 2-3 g samples of the homogenized meat was inoculated in polystyrene tissue culture plate wells Other: · Inoculation was performed at different levels (10 to 10000 spores) per 3 g samples · Plates containing samples were vacuum packaged (~980 mm Hg) overnight at 4°C before beginning incubation periods. | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage (lag phase) Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Prevention of toxin production (probability of toxin formation): Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Salt/brine concentration | Samples of homogenized cooked turkey (at 0 to 2% salt) were inoculated with different levels of a cocktail of C. botulinum spores and incubated at different temperatures (4 to 30°C) for up to 180 days. For each salt level, toxin was first noted earlier (as early as 0.5 days) as storage temperatures increased. Higher salt concentrations did not always delay toxin formation, possibly because lactic acid bacteria grew and produced antimicrobial substances which inhibited C. botulinum. Type E toxin was most frequently produced. A model was generated from the data which predicted lag phase: lag phase was affected by storage temperature, inoculum level, but not by salt concentration. |
| Getty KJK, Phebus RK, Marsden JL, Schwenke JR, Kastner CL (1999) Control of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 in large (115 mm) and intermediate (90 mm) diameter Lebanon-style bologna. Journal of Food Science 64 (6):1100-1107. | NFC/NSS | Lebanon bologna | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control Antimicrobials (Salt/brine) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 8 hours at an internal temperature of 26.7°C, followed by 24 hours at 37.8°C, followed by 24 hours at 43.3°C; some processes used additional heating of 1 to 5 hours at 46.1°C. · Come-up times differed for 90 vs. 115 mm diameter sausages; see paper for details · Smoke was applied during last 2 hours of the 43.3°C stage Temperature: · Internal temperature during fermentation: 26.7 to 43.3°C · Additional heating at 46.1°C Concentration: · Raw batter contained 3.3% salt, 0.14% potassium nitrite, 0.01% sodium nitrite Humidity: 70 to 88% RH during fermentation/drying/smokehouse schedule; see paper for details Water Activity: · Raw batter: 0.955 to 0.956 · Final product: 0.94 to 0.958 pH: · Raw batter pH: 6.34 to 6.78 · Final pH: 4.4 Spatial Configuration: 90 or 115 mm diameter pre-soaked cellulose casings 115 mm chubs were 25 cm in length and weighed about 3 kg 90 mm chubs were 18 cm long and weighed 1.1 kg Other: Fat concentration was 10-13% in the final product. | Time: Fermentation time Temperature : Fermentation and heating temperatures Concentration: Salt concentration pH: Final pH of product | This study investigated the reduction in E. coli O157:H7 observed during the entire fermentation process of 90 mm or 115 mm diameter Lebanon bologna sausages produced using various smokehouse schedules. >5 log reduction in E. coli O157:H7 was observed for both large (115 mm) and intermediate (90 mm) diameter Lebanon bologna at low pH (4.4), high salt (4.0 to 4.7%) and low-fat (10.3 to 13%). Regardless of come-up times, a schedule that involved 8 hour at 26.7°C (internal temperature) followed by 24 hours at 37.8°C (internal temperature) followed by 24 hours at 43.3°C (internal temperature) resulted in a >5 log reduction. |
| Gill, C. O., Moza, L. F., and Barbut, S. 2009. Survival of bacteria in less than thorough cooked, brine-injected steaks. Food Contr. 20:501. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Mechanically tenderized beef steaks | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 L. monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Cooking time: to temperatures of 63, 64, or 65°C · Time between flips on grill: every 30 sec · Holding time after cooking: 0 to 2 min Temperature: · Hot plate cooking temperature: 170°C · Internal temperature: 63, 64, or 65°C Spatial Configuration: · Steaks were from the eye of round and were 3 cm thick; they were mechanically tenderized by two passages through a blade tenderizing machine. · Steaks were inoculated by injecting at the center of the steak immediately before cooking. Equipment Settings: Steaks were cooked singly on a sheet of aluminum foil covering a hot plate | Time: Holding time after cooking Temperature: Internal temperature of meat Spatial thickness: Steak thickness | The data for E. coli O157:H7 indicate that cooking to 63°C, even with holding after cooking as seems to be recommended by the US regulatory authorities, could be unreliable for assuring the safety of non-intact steaks. Cooking to 64°C with holding for 2 min or to65°C would seem to be necessary with cells in the physiological state likely among E. coli present on chilled meats or in chilled brines. The data for the L. monocytogenes cocktails indicate that such conditions would be equally effective for eliminating this organism from non-intact steaks. However, if E. coli O157:H7 or L. monocytogenes had grown under conditions that enhanced their resistance to injury from heating, cooking to 65°C with holding for 1 or 2 min would apparently be necessary if their numbers were to be reduced by >7 log units. |
| Glass KA, Kaspar CW, Sindelar JJ, Milkowski AL, Lotz BM, Kang J, Faith NG, Enache E, Kataoka AI, Henry C (2012) Validation of pepperoni process for control of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. J Food Prot 75 (5):838-846. | HT/SS | Pepperoni | Beef and pork | Non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing E. coli strains (O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, and O145) and O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: until pH 4.8 was obtained (8 hrs, 8 min) · Cook time: 60 min · Drying time: ~7 days until a moisture/protein ratio of 1.6:1 was reached · Holding (including drying) time: 20 days Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 38.9°C dry bulb and 37.8°C wet bulb · Cook temperature: 53.3°C internal temperature · Drying/holding temperature:13°C dry bulb Concentration: Pepperoni batter formulation contained 156 ppm NaNO2 and NaCl (0.235% cure mix which was 93.75% salt) Humidity: · Fermentation: 94 to 96% · Cook step: 97% · Drying step humidity: · 88% RH for 48 hrs · 82% RH for 120 hrs · 76% humidity was reached (~7 days) and throughout the holding period Water Activity: · Batter: 0.960 to 0.963 · Postcook: 0.960 · After drying and holding: 0.829 to 0.838 pH: · Batter: ~6.16 · Postcook: 4.58 to 4.61 · After drying and holding: 4.66 to 4.67 Spatial Configuration: Fibrous casings were 5.1 cm in diameter; chubs weighed 450 to 500 g prior to fermentation Other: Batter was inoculated with a 7-strain mixture including O157:H7 and 6 non-O157:H7 STEC strains. Additional proximate analysis information can be found in the full paper. | Time: · Fermentation time · Cook time · Drying time Temperature: · Fermentation temperature · Cook temperature · Drying temperature Humidity Water activity pH | As has been found in previous studies with O157:H7 (Hinkens et al., 1996), this study demonstrated a 5-log kill of E. coli O157:H7, as well as the other STEC serotypes tested, when the product’s moisture/protein ratio reached 1.6:1. O103 and O157 serotypes had the greatest survival during the pepperoni processing steps. Non-O157:H7 strains had comparable or less ability than did O157 to survive the processing steps, suggesting that processes that control O157 in dry fermented sausages will also control non-O157 strains. |
| Glass KA, McDonnell LM, VonTayson R, Wanless B, Badvela M (2013) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by propionic acid-based ingredients in cured deli-style turkey. J Food Prot 76 (12):2074-2078. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cured deli-style turkey | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Lactate-diacetate blend, liquid propionate-benzoate ingredient, and liquid propionate ingredient) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 12 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 or 7°C Concentration: In formulations: · NaNO2: 120 ppm · Lactate-diacetate blend: 3.2% · Liquid propionate-benzoate ingredient: 0.4% · Liquid propionate ingredient: 0.3 to 0.5% Water Activity: 0.970 to 0.978 pH: 6.13 to 6.44 Product Coverage: antimicrobials were in formulation Spatial Configuration: ~100 g packages of turkey (10 slices) were surface inoculated for each test Other: · % moisture of formulations ranged from 75.57 to 77.02 · Residual nitrite in formulations ranged from 27.9 to 43.8°C · Packages were vacuum sealed in gas-impermeable pouches prior to storage | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials in the formulation | …all treatments that contained liquid propionate or propionate-benzoate limited L. monocytogenes growth to an increase of <1 log through 9 weeks storage at 4°C. Sporadic growth (>1-log increase) was observed in individual samples for all propionate-containing treatments at weeks 10, 11, and 12. As expected, L. monocytogenes grew more rapidly when products were stored at 7°C, but trends in relative inhibition were similar to those observed at 4°C. These results verify that propionate-based ingredients inhibit growth of L. monocytogenes on sliced, high-moisture, cured turkey and can be considered as an alternative to reduce sodium-based salts while maintaining food safety. Higher moisture and storage temperatures may accelerate listerial growth under conditions that otherwise would inhibit its growth. |
| Golden MC, Wanless BJ, David JRD, Kottapalli B, Lineback DS, Talley RJ, Glass KA (2017) Effect of Cultured Celery Juice, Temperature, and Product Composition on the Inhibition of Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum Toxin Production. J Food Prot 80 (8):1259-1265. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Marinated grilled pork with Dijon mustard sauce | Pork | Clostridium botulinum (Proteolyticstrains, toxin type A and type B) | Antimicrobials (Cultured celery juice powder [CCJP]) Temperature control (Storage temperature) | Prevention of toxin production | Time: · Cook time: 10 min · Storage time: up to 8 weeks Temperature: · Cook temperature: 90°C internal temperature · Storage temperature: 10, 15, or 20°C Concentration: Cultured celery juice powder [CCJP]: added to 0.4% to marinade and sauce to give a nitrite concentration of 80 mg/kg Water Activity: 0.983 to 0.984 for the composite product; 0.981 for the sauce, 0.989 for the protein component pH: 5.9 to 5.95 for the composite product; 4.43 to 4.61 for the sauce and 5.93 to 5.96 for the protein component Product Coverage: Cultured celery juice powder (a natural source of nitrite) was in the marinade and in the sauce Spatial Configuration: Pork pieces were in cubes or strips of 10 to 20 cm3 and were inoculated with spores prior adding sauce; portions (~75 g) were then vacuum packaged into gas-impermeable pouches Other: · Inoculated foods were vacuum packaged prior to cooking and storage Residual nitrite was 12.7 mg/kg in composite product, 40.9 mg/kg in the sauce, and 8.2 mg/kg in the protein | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: CCJP (natural source of nitrite) | This study tested whether a natural source of nitrite (cultured celery juice powder) added to a nitrite equivalent concentration of 80 mg/kg would be able to prevent or delay toxin production from C. botulinum inoculated in marinated grilled pork in a sauce during storage at several temperatures. Neither the control nor the samples with CCJP showed toxicity during 8 weeks storage at 10°C. At a warmer temperature (15°C), toxicity occurred in some control samples by 5 weeks, but no toxicity was seen in the CCJP samples throughout 8 weeks of storage. At the highest temperature tested (20°C), both control samples and samples with CCJP showed toxicity by 1 week of storage. |
| Guentert AM, Linton RH, Luchansky JB, Cousin MA (2005) Behavior of Listeria monocytogenes in pH-modified chicken salad during refrigerated storage. J Environ Health 68 (1):31-37. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Commercially pasteurized chicken salad | Chicken | Listeria monocytogenes | pH control (Acidification with acetic acid or sodium acetate) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 119 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 5.0, 7.2, and 21.1°C pH: 4.0, 4.6, and 5.2 Product Coverage: Acidifying agents were thoroughly mixed into chicken salad prior to inoculation. Spatial Configuration: 25 g samples | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature pH | Nine different treatment conditions (by varying pH and storage temperature) were tested. None of the treatments supported growth of L. monocytogenes. At 21.1°C, a 6-log reduction was seen after 14 days at pH 4.0, after 52 days at pH 4.6, and after 38 days at pH 5.2. Inactivation was slower at lower temperatures. At 7.2°C, a microbial reduction of 1 log (pH 5.2) and >3 log (pH 4.0 and 4.6) was observed at 119 days. At 5°C, a 7.5-log reduction was observed at 24 days at pH 4.0. At pH levels of 4.6 and 5.2, however, only a 4-log reduction was found at 119 days. The results of this study were not predicted by the USDA Pathogen Modeling Program (2004). |
| Gunther, N. W., Sites, J., and Sommers, C. 2015. The effects of high-pressure treatments on Campylobacter jejuni in ground poultry products containing polyphosphate additives. Poult. Sci. 94:2297. | Raw | Ground poultry | Turkey | Campylobacter jejuni | High-pressure processing Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction | Time: HPP time: 10 min Storage time: up to 14 days Temperature: HPP temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: Hexametahposphate (0.25 and 0.5%) Sodium tripolyphosphate (0.25 and 0.5%) Spatial Configuration: 65 g samples of ground turkey were mixed with polyphosphate solutions and inoculated with Campylobacter cocktails, and mixed. 5 g aliquots were vacuum sealed for HPP treatment. Pressure: 250 MPa Equipment Settings: The refrigerator used for the cold storage was darkened. | Time: HPP time Storage time Pressure: HPP pressure | This study tested how marinades containing polyphosphates affected the efficacy of high-pressure processing against C. jejuni. It also looked at how well HPP treatment in combination with storage at 4°C worked to reduce C. jejuni levels. The presence of polyphosphates in the ground turkey did not result in a significant difference in C. jejuni reductions following HPP treatment, although numbers did vary. Reductions following 250 MPa for 10 were in the range of 1.1 to 1.8 logs for all treatment groups. The presence of polyphosphates also did not impact the survival of C. jejuni during cold storage following HPP treatment. Without added polyphosphates, storage of the pressure-treated ground turkey resulted in an average reduction of viable C. jejuni of 3.9 logs after 7 d and 4.8 logs after 14 d. Cold storage alone only resulted in small reductions. However, combining the pressure treatment of 250 MPa for 10 min with 7 d of storage at 4°C results in a significant reduction of 2.5 logs in the numbers of viable C. jejuni. The reduction produced by the joint treatments is significantly greater than the reductions produced from the individual treatments. |
| Gunvig, A., Andresen, M. S., Jacobsen, T., and Borggaard, C. 2018. Staphtox predictor - A dynamic mathematical model to predict formation of Staphylococcus enterotoxin during heating and fermentation of meat products. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 285:81. | NHT/SS | Meat model system similar to various fermented sausages and semi-processed hams | Pork | Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite) pH control (Fermentation) Water activity control (Drying) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin production | Time: Heat treatment, fermentation, and storage times Temperature: Storage temperature: 15 to 40°C Concentration: Sodium nitrite: 0 to 150 ppm Brine for the meat model system contained 14.4% WPS, 3.5% phosphate, and 1% dextrose pH: 4.8 to 5.8 Spatial Configuration: Some validation work was done with 30 mm diameter sausages Pressure: Equipment Settings: Other: Water phase salt (WPS) (2.5–5.5%) | Time: Heat treatment/fermentation/storage time Temperature: Heat treatment/fermentation/storage temperature Concentration: · % NaCl and KCl in the product · Sodium nitrite added in recipe · Water in the product pH: · Change in pH over time | Predictive models for S. aureus growth and for toxin formation were developed using a meat model study in which temperatures, WPS, pH, and sodium nitrite levels were varies. The models were validated using data from a variety of meat products, including some in the literature. The SE model predicted all occurrences of toxin formation in the validation data sets. The growth model is a fail-safe model and the prediction errors are comparable to laboratory reproducibility. The models were implemented in a user-friendly interface available at www.dmripredict.dk. The models require the following input variables: NaCl% and KCl% in the product, Sodium nitrite added to the recipe and water in the product, and a choice between a specific change in pH over time or a time/temperature profile. The output is the increase in S. aureus during the fermentation process or heating/cooling process, if SE formation can occur, and the degree hours for the fermentation process. |
| Guo M, Jin TZ, Yadav MP, Yang R (2015) Antimicrobial property and microstructure of micro-emulsion edible composite films against Listeria. International Journal of Food Microbiology 208:58-64. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat, preservative free deli turkey meat | Turkey | Listeria innocua | Antimicrobials (Antimicrobial composite films containing chitosan, allyl isothiocyanate [AIT], barley straw arabinoxylan [BSAX], and organic acids [lactic and levulinic]) Packaging (Antimicrobial composite films) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 35 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 10 to 22°C Concentration: · Films were made with the following ingredients: o Chitosan (1.5% w/v) o AIT (5% v/v) o BSAX or Tween80 (0.5% v/v) as emulsifiers · And dispersed in an acid solution containing 2% (v/v) mixture of lactic and levulinic acid Product Coverage: Antimicrobial composite films were large enough to cover meat slices. Spatial Configuration: Meat slices were 2 x 2 x 1 cm in size. Antimicrobial films were 4 x 4 cm in size Other: The antimicrobials were incorporated in the film ingredients by high-pressure homogenization Film-covered samples were vacuum packaged for storage | Time: Storage time Concentration: Concentration of AIT in films Other: High pressure homogenization of AIT within film formulation | Within 1 day of application to meat and storage at 10°C, the antimicrobial composite films reduced Listeria levels by about 1.5 log relative to control. The antimicrobial composite films reduced Listeria levels on meat samples by ~3 logs compared to controls following storage at 10°C for 35 days. Homogenization of materials to make films by high-pressure homogenization (HPH) resulted in better antilisterial activity at storage times beyond 25 days. At early time points, films made with or without HPH showed similar antilisterial activity. |
| Guo MM, Jin TZ, Wang LX, Scullen OJ, Sommers CH (2014) Antimicrobial films and coatings for inactivation of Listeria innocua on ready-to-eat deli turkey meat. Food Control 40:64-70. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat, preservative free deli turkey meat | Turkey | Listeria innocua | Temperature control (Post-processing treatment [flash pasteurization, or FP]) Antimicrobials (Chitosan, lauric arginate ester [LAE], or nisin) Packaging (Active packaging with polylactic acid [PLA] films coated with chitosan, LAE, or nisin) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Storage time was 24 hrs · Flash pasteurization (FP) was for 1.5 sec Temperature: · Storage temperature was 10°C · Steam temperature for FP was 120°C Concentration: · See paper for exact compositions of coating solutions. · Chitosan: 0.389 to 1.94 mg/cm2 · LAE: 0 to 0.778 mg/cm2 · Nisin: 0 or 486 IU/cm2 Product Coverage: Antimicrobial solutions were spread evenly onto inoculated meat samples. PLA films coated with antimicrobials were put directly onto inoculated meat samples Spatial Configuration: Meat slices were 4 x 4 x 1 cm in size. For FP, four turkey samples were placed in the bottom of a tray in a single layer Other: · See paper for details on preparation of antimicrobial PLA films · Treated samples were vacuum packaged · FP was performed after inoculation but prior to coating or packaging | Time: Flash pasteurization time Temperature: Flash pasteurization temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials in film or as a coating | This study compared a number of antimicrobials (applied to the surface of meats as a coating or incorporated into a packaging film), alone or combined with flash pasteurization, to control Listeria growth on deli turkey meat. Based on prior work the authors assumed the PLA film alone had no antimicrobial effect against the pathogens tested. Antimicrobial coating or film treatments with 1.94 mg/cm2 chitosan and 0.388 mg/cm2 LAE reduced Listeria by ca. 4.57 log CFU/cm2. The combination of FP with antimicrobial coating/film treatments achieved more than 5 log reduction of L. innocua. The same treatment also reduced Salmonella Typhimurium by ca. 3.3 log CFU/cm2. …chitosan coatings with nisin exhibited less anti-listerial activity than LAE at the tested concentration (486 IU/cm2 ) and the combination of nisin with LAE did not contribute to a synergistic or additional anti-listerial effect. No significant differences in antimicrobial effectiveness were found for antimicrobial coatings vs. films. |
| Guo MM, Jin TZ, Yang RJ (2014) Antimicrobial polylactic acid packaging films against Listeria and Salmonella in culture medium and on ready-to-eat meat. Food Bioprocess Technol 7 (11):3293-3307. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat, preservative free deli turkey meat | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Packaging (Active packaging; edible chitosan-based films incorporating lauric arginate ester (LAE), sodium lactate (NaL) and sorbic acid (SA) alone or in combinations, coated onto polylactic acid packaging film. A mixture of lactic acid and levulinic acid was used to dissolve the chitosan initially and create the coating solution) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Storage time: up to 35 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 10°C Concentration: · Acids (2% lactic acid and levulinic acid in combination) were used in making the 2% or 5% chitosan coating solution · In packaging films: o Chitosan: 1.94 mg/cm2 o LAE: 1.94 mg/cm2 o NaL: 0.78 mg/cm2 o SA: 0.12 mg/cm2 Contact Time: Films remained in contact with meat during storage Product Coverage: Films were sized to completely cover meat samples Spatial Configuration: Meat samples were 3 x 3x cm in size Other: PLA films (0.2 mm x 10 cm x 18 cm) were coated with 7 mL of each coating solution and then dried under vacuum. Coated PLA films were cut to 4 x 4 cm and placed on top of inoculated turkey slice and then vacuum packaged. | Time: Storage time up to 35 days Temperature: Storage temperature of 10°C Concentration: Concentration of chitosan, LAE, and acids uses (lactic and levulinic acids) | Antimicrobial PLA films containing 1.94 mg/cm2 of chitosan and 1.94 μg/cm2 of LAE … significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the growth of L. innocua, L. monocytogenes, and S. Typhimurium on RTE meat during 3 and 5 weeks’ storage at 10 °C, achieving 2–3 log reduction of Listeria and 1–1.5 log reduction of Salmonella as compared with controls. PLA films coated with 1.94 mg/cm2 of chitosan, 0.78 mg/cm2 of NaL, and 0.12 mg/cm2 of SA significantly reduced the growth of L. innocua but were less effective against Salmonella. The combination of NaL (0.78 mg/cm2) and SA (0.12 mg/cm2) with LAE (1.94 μg/cm2) did not generate additional or synergetic antimicrobial effect against Listeria or Salmonella on the meat surface. |
| Gutierrez D, Rodriguez-Rubio L, Fernandez L, Martinez B, Rodriguez A, Garcia P (2017) Applicability of commercial phage-based products against Listeria monocytogenes for improvement of food safety in Spanish dry-cured ham and food contact surfaces. Food Control 73:1474-1482. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956713516306223 | NHT/SS | Spanish dry-cured ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Bacteriophage preparations [ListShield and Listex P100]) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: 0 to 14 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 or 12°C Concentration: Phage concentration on ham slices: · ListShield: 107 PFU/cm2 · Listex P100: 109 PFU/cm2 Product Coverage: 100 mL of the phage preparations were spread onto the inoculated ham slices Spatial Configuration: Dry-cured ham slices were 1 x 1 x 0.1 cm in size and weighed about 0.1079 g | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Phage concentration and preparation type | Treatment with bacteriophage preparations significantly reduced L. monocytogenes levels compared to untreated controls during storage at 4°C. Listex P100 (but not ListShield) was able to prevent regrowth of the L. monocytogenes during storage at 4°C. Storage at a higher temperature (12°C) greatly reduced the effectiveness of ListShield. Listex P100 was still effective, although in some cases there was a delay in L. monocytogenes reduction. At the concentrations used in this study, Listex P100 appeared to be more effective than ListShield, especially at higher levels of bacterial contamination and higher temperatures. |
| Ha JW, Kang DH (2015) Enhanced inactivation of food-borne pathogens in ready-to-eat sliced ham by NIR heating combined with UV-C irradiation and mechanism of the synergistic bactericidal action. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 81 (1):2-8. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat sliced ham | Pork | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Near-infrared heating (NIR) UV-C irradiation (UV) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Time of irradiation: 0 to 70 sec Temperature: Surface temperature of ham slices ranged from 20°C to >70°C depending on Product Coverage: Pathogen was inoculated on surface of ham slices by immersion Spatial Configuration: Ham slices weighed ~25 g and measured ~90 x ~90 x ~2 mm Equipment Settings: · See original paper for details on the NIR and UV lamps used and their arrangement for irradiation. · Treatment occurred within a model aluminum chamber measuring 41 x 34 x 29 cm with reflectors; sample was placed on a rack to allow both sides of sample to be irradiated Other: · Radiation intensity at sample location: o NIR: 200.36 mW/cm2 /nm o UV: radiation intensity at the sample location, 1.85 mW/cm2 | Time: Irradiation Other: · Irradiation source (NIR and UV), including wavelength · Radiation intensity at sample location | Simultaneous NIR plus UV irradiation for 70 sec resulted in 3-4 log reductions in each of the three tested pathogens. For each pathogen, the combined treatment showed a 1 log reduction in pathogen levels compared to the reductions of each treatment performed separately and added together (a synergistic effect was observed). UV treatment alone (10 seconds of irradiation) resulted in significant reductions in the numbers of the three pathogen. NIR treatment alone required 30-40 seconds to produce significant reductions in levels of the three pathogens. No deterioration of product quality was noted with the treatments. |
| Hajmeer, M. N., Tajkarimi, M., Gomez, E. L., Lim, N., O'Hara, M., Riemann, H. P., and Cliver, D. O. 2011. Thermal death of bacterial pathogens in linguica smoking. Food Contr. 22:668. | NFC/NSS FC/NSS | Linguica, a Portuguese-type sausage | Pork | Campylobacter jejuni E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. Yersinia enterocolitica | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Hot smoking time where sausage centers were ≥60°C: ≥90 min · Cooling time after smoking: 15 min Temperature: · Oven pre-heating temperature: ≥88°C · Sausage centers: ≥60°C Concentration: Sodium nitrite and NaCl were present in the batter Humidity: Smoking was done with moistened sawdust Spatial Configuration: Pork casings were stuffed with inoculated batter to make sausages with a diameter ≤3 cm, length 10 cm, and weight of 75 to 80 g Equipment Settings: See paper for more details about smoking of the sausages Other: · Moisture after smoking: 44% · Crude protein after smoking: 25.4% · Crude fat after smoking: 28.6% | Time: Hot smoking time Temperature: Hot smoking temperature | Hot smoking so that the sausage centers were at ≥60°C for at least 90 min was sufficient to reduce levels of all 5 pathogens by at least 5 log. |
| Haneklaus AN, Harris KB, Marquez-Gonzalez M, Lucia LM, Castillo A, Hardin MD, Osburn WN, Savell JW (2011) Alternative Cooling Procedures for Large, Intact Meat Products To Achieve Stabilization Microbiological Performance Standards. J Food Prot 74 (1):101-105. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Large (9 to 12 kg) cured bone-in hams and large (8 to 13 kg) uncured beef inside rounds | Beef Pork | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling (stabilization) | Time: · Time to reduce temperature from 54.4°C to 26.7°C: · Time to reduce temperature from 26.7°C to 7.2°C (hams): · Time to reduce temperature from 26.7°C to 4.4°C (beef rounds): Temperature: · See above under Time for meat temperatures · Room temperature cooling occurred at 22.8°C Concentration: Brine used in hams contained 2% sodium chloride, 200 ppm sodium nitrite, and 5000 ppm sodium tripolyphosphate Humidity: Dwell Time: Water Activity: pH: Contact Time: Product Coverage: Spatial Configuration: Hams were 9 to 12 kg, bone-in; beef roasts were 8 to 13 kg beef inside rounds Pressure: Equipment Settings: Other: | Time: Time to reach specific temperatures Temperature: Temperature of meat | FSIS has reviewed the article by Haneklaus, et al. (2011) and determined that this article does not provide sufficient scientific support alone for alternative stabilization procedures for large, intact whole muscle meat products. Establishments should not rely on this article alone unless additional data is generated (e.g., in-plant data or an inoculation challenge study) that addresses the level of C. perfringens growth (increase 20 of vegetative cells) that occurs during the cooling process. FSIS made this determination based on the method the authors used to measure bacterial load in the final product. For more information, see USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. 2017. FSIS compliance guideline for stabilization (cooling and hot-holding) of fully and partially heat-treated RTE and NRTE meat and poultry products produced by small and very small establishments and revised Appendix B. https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/9ac49aba-46bc-443c-856b-59a3f51b924f/Compliance-Guideline-Stabilization-Appendix-B.pdf?MOD=AJPERES (accessed June 21, 2017). |
| Hardin MD, Williams SE, Harrison MA (1993) Survival of Listeria monocytogenes in postpasteurized precooked beef roasts. J Food Prot 56 (8):655-660. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Precooked eye-of-round beef roast | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Post-lethality submerged hot water pasteurization) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Pasteurization time: 3 or 5 min · Storage time: up to 56 days Temperature: · Pasteurization temperature: 91 or 96°C · Storage temperature: 4 or 10°C Spatial Configuration: Eye-of-round roasts weighed approximately 1750 g were cut in half prior to inoculation Other: Inoculated roasts were vacuum packaged in CN530 cook-in bags prior to pasteurization | Time: · Pasteurization time · Storage time Temperature: · Pasteurization temperature · Storage temperature | This study assessed the ability of hot water pasteurization (at various times and temperatures) to both initially reduce Listeria monocytogenes (inoculated at high levels) on cooked beef roasts and also to prevent growth during storage at 4 and 10°C. Pasteurization at the higher temperature (96°C) and for the longer time (5 min) resulted in both the greatest initial reduction of L. monocytogenes numbers (4.52 log vs. <3 log for other times and temperatures) and also resulted in a greater reduction in numbers throughout 56 days of storage at either 4 or 10°C. L. monocytogenes grew faster at 10°C than at 4°C. |
| Harper NM, Roberts MN, Getty KJK, Boyle EAE, Fung DYC, Higgins JJ (2009) Evaluation of Two Thermal Processing Schedules at Low Relative Humidity for Elimination of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Serovars in Chopped and Formed Beef Jerky. J Food Prot 72 (12):2476-2482. | HT/SS | Chopped and formed beef jerky | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Water activity control (Drying) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Time at each processing step; see paper for details on each process Temperature: · Dry bulb temperatures; see paper for details on each process · Internal temperatures: matched dry bulb temperatures and reached 71.8°C Concentration: Salt content for raw batter was 2.2% and 4.5% for finished jerky Humidity: <10% RH or 15 to 20% RH throughout processing Water Activity: 0.59 to 0.60 at end of processing pH: 6.1 for raw batter and 5.2 for finished jerky Spatial Configuration: Before drying, each strip was approximately 15.24 by 2.54 by 0.64 cm Other: · Jerky batter contained 83% lean beef and had 17.4% fat, 16.5% protein in the proximate analysis Moisture content of raw better was 53.7% and 16.8% for finished jerky | Time: Processing times at each temperature Temperature: Dry bulb temperature at each step (See original paper for details) | Two different jerky making processes which did not utilize high humidity were tested and shown to reduce E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. by ≥5 log. Although each process included additional steps, the 5-log reduction was shown at this point in processing for each of the two processes: 1. <10% RH; 44 min at 55.6°C followed by 46 min at 77.8°C, 2. 15 to 20% RH; 45 min at 52°C, followed by 60 min at 57°C, 45 min at 60°C, 45 min at 63°C, 90 min at 68°C, and 30 min at 77°C However, neither process brought the moisture protein ratio (MPR) down to 0.75, which is necessary for a product to be labeled as jerky in the U.S. |
| Harrison D, Corry JEL, Tchorzewska MA, Morris VK, Hutchison ML (2013) Freezing as an intervention to reduce the numbers of campylobacters isolated from chicken livers. Letters in Applied Microbiology 57 (3):206-213. | Other (Fresh meat) | Raw chicken livers | Chicken | Campylobacter spp. | Temperature control (Freezing) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Freezing time: 1 to 7 days · Thaw time: 3 days Temperature: · Freezer temperature: -15 or -25°C · Chicken liver temperatures varied depending on freezing temperature and time in freezer; see paper for details · Thawing temperature: 4°C Spatial Configuration: 1.5 to 2.5 kg of randomly selected livers were bagged and frozen. | Time: Freezing time Temperature: · Freezer temperature · Chicken liver temperature · Thawing temperature | This study investigated whether storage of chicken livers are various temperatures could reduce Campylobacter levels. 24 hours in a -15°C freezer reduced Campylobacter numbers by 0.8 log; freezing at -25°C for the same time resulted in up to 2 log reductions. 7 days in a -15°C freezer reduced Campylobacter spp. numbers by 1.5 log; 7 days in a -25°C freezer reduced Campylobacter spp. numbers to approximately the same extent as did 1 day. Freezing the livers twice to -25°C, with 24 hours of thawing at 4°C increased the total reduction in Campylobacter number by ~3 logs. |
| Harrison, D., Corry, J. E. L., Tchorzewska, M. A., Morris, V. K., and Hutchison, M. L. 2013. Freezing as an intervention to reduce the numbers of campylobacters isolated from chicken livers. Letters in Applied Microbiology 57:206. | Raw | Chicken livers | Chicken | Campylobacter spp. | Temperature control (Freezing) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Freezing time: 24 hours to 7 days · Thawing time: overnight · Refrigerated storage: up to 3 days Temperature: · Freezing temperature: -15 to -25°C · Overnight thawing temperature: 4°C · Refrigerated storage: 4°C Spatial Configuration: Livers (about 90, weighing a total of about 1.5 kg, or a greater number weighing about 2.5 kg for the freeze/thaw/refreeze experiments) were frozen in polyethylene bags Other: Number of freeze-thaw cycles: 0, 1 or 2 Livers were processed to remove gall bladders and bile ducts. | Time: Freezing time Thawing time Temperature: Freezing temperature Thawing temperature Storage temperature Other: Number of freeze-thaw cycles | Freezing for 24 h at -25°C can reduce numbers of Campylobacter by up to 2 log10CFU/g. Freezing the livers for 24 h at -25°C, thawing overnight in a fridge set to 4°C and refreezing for another 24 h at -25°C reduced the numbers of campylobacters by up to three logs. Reduction in the numbers of campylobacters was significantly greater following a second freeze treatment compared with a single freeze treatment. Freezing at -15°C for 24 hours resulted in a small (0.8 log) reduction in Campylobacter numbers. Freezing at this temperature for 7 days resulted in a 1.5 log reduction in Campylobacter numbers. Following freezing at either temperature or length of time, the previously frozen chicken livers could be stored for up to 3 days at 4°C without further changes in Campylobacter numbers. There was no significant difference between the number of Campylobacters reduced after 24 hours vs. 7 days when freezing at -25°C was used. |
| Hauschild AHW, Hilsheimer R, Jarvis G, Raymond DP (1982) Contribution of nitrite to the control of Clostridium botulinum in liver sausage. J Food Prot 45 (6):500-506. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Liver sausage | Pork | Clostridium botulinum Type A and proteolytic Type B | Antimicrobials (Nitrite) Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Prevention of toxin production | Time: Heat treatment: 30 to 90 min Storage time up to 4 weeks Temperature: Heat treatment: 76.5 to 80°C Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: Sodium nitrite: 0 to 150 mg/kg in formulation Salt: 2.07 to 2.89% (final) Water Activity: 0.946 to 0.963 pH: 6.05 to 6.15 Product Coverage: Nitrite was in formulation Other: Botulinal spores were added to the sausages at the same time as the nitrite, before final heat processing step. | Time: · Heat treatment · Storage time Temperature: · Heat treatment · Storage temperature Concentration: · Sodium nitrite · Salt | The presence of nitrite at 150 ppm was able to prevent C. botulinum toxigenesis under severe temperature abuse (27°C for 4 weeks), but lower concentrations of nitrite (50 or 100 ppm) resulted in toxigenesis at 2 or 3 weeks. Residual nitrite decreased during heat processing, with greater decreases at higher temperatures or longer processing times. As residual nitrite decreased, the rate of toxigenesis increased. Without nitrite, the probability of toxigenesis from a single spore within liver sausage that was then stored for 1 week at 27°C is 10-2 to 10-4. |
| Hill DE, Luchansky J, Porto-Fett A, Gamble HR, Fournet VM, Hawkins-Cooper DS, Gajadhar AA, Holley R, Juneja VK, Dubey JP (2017) Curing conditions to inactivate Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae in ready-to-eat pork sausage. Food and Waterborne Parasitology 6-7:1-8. | NHT/SS | Ready-to-eat dry-cured pork sausage (pepperoni) | Pork | Trichinella spiralis | Dry curing, which includes: Temperature control Antimicrobials (Salt/brine) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: until pH of 4.6 or 5.2 was reached (24-28 hours) · Drying time: until a water activity of 0.92 was reached (12 to 38 days post-stuffing) Temperature: · Fermentation: 23.8°C · Drying: 15.5°C Concentration: In pepperoni batter: 1.3 to 2.8% NaCl; 0.25% cure (sodium nitrate/nitrite mixture) Humidity: Fermentation: 88% RH Drying: 75% RH Dwell Time: Water Activity: 0.99-1.0 after fermentation 0.92 after drying pH: 4.6 or 5.2 after fermentation Spatial Configuration: 55 mm diameter cellulose casings were used After stuffing, chubs were 254 mm in length and weighed 500 g each Other: · 70% lean meat, 30% fat in batter Starter culture was Pediococcus acidilactici and Staphylococcus carnosus | Concentration NaCl concentration in batter pH pH after drying | Pepperoni sausages of different salt concentrations and at various pH levels were made with Trichinella-contaminated pork and tested to identify conditions under which Trichinella larvae were not viable. Salt (NaCl) concentrations >1.3% in combination with fermentation to pH <5.2 inactivated >96% of Trichinella muscle larvae in sausages within 24-28 hours. All muscle larvae under all tested conditions were inactivated by 7-10 days post-stuffing. To summarize: · If pH is 4.6 and % NaCl ≥1.3%, 8 days are required to achieve complete inactivation of T. spiralis ML · If pH is > 4.6 and ≤ 5.2, and o if % NaCl ≥1.3 but <1.8, then 11 days are required; o if % NaCl ≥1.8 but <2.8, then 9 days are required o if % NaCl ≥2.8, then 8 days are required · This proposed rule is not valid for pH outside of the range (4.6, 5.2), nor for % NaCl <1.3 |
| Hospital XF, Hierro E, Stringer S, Fernandez M (2016) A study on the toxigenesis by Clostridium botulinum in nitrate and nitrite-reduced dry fermented sausages. International Journal of Food Microbiology 218:66-70. | NHT/SS | Mediterranean-style dry sausages (salchichon and fuet) | Pork | Clostridium botulinum (Proteolytic and nonproteolytic spores) | Antimicrobials (Nitrate/nitrite) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) Other (Competitive microflora) | Prevention of toxin production | Time: See paper for details on time and temperature and humidity during sausage fermentation and drying. Temperature: See paper for details on time and temperature and humidity during sausage fermentation and drying. Concentration: · NaCl: 2.2 to 2.4% · 0 to 150 mg/kg NaNO3 · 0 to 150 mg/kg NaNO2 Humidity: See paper for details on time and temperature and humidity during sausage fermentation and drying. Water Activity: · Initial value: 0.96 · After ripening: 0.88 to 0.90 pH: · Initial pH: 5.6 · After ripening: 5.0 to 5.2 Spatial Configuration: · Salchichon batters were stuffed into 65 mm diameter collagen casings to make 400g sausages. · Fuet batters were stuffed into 40 mm diameter collagen casings to make 200 g sausages. | Temperature: Fermentation temperature Water activity pH Other : (Competitive microflora) | Two different types of dry sausages made with various amounts of nitrate and nitrite were inoculated during formulation with spores of C. botulinum (proteolytic and non-proteolytic strains), and toxin production was measured. No toxin was detected in any of the samples tested, even from sausages that did not contain any nitrate or nitrite. Although the presence of nitrate or nitrite did not appear to be necessary in this study, the authors caution that their antimicrobial role should not be underestimated. |
| Houtsma PC, Kant-Muermans ML, Rombouts FM, Zwietering MH (1996) Model for the combined effects of temperature, pH, and sodium lactate on growth rates of Listeria innocua in broth and Bologna-type sausages. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 62 (5):1616-1622. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Bologna-type sausages | Not specified | Listeria innocua | Temperature control Antimicrobial (Sodium lactate) pH control | Inhibition of growth during storage | Temperature: Storage temperature of 7 to 20°C Concentration: Formulation contained 2% wt/wt NaCl and 120 mg/g nitrite Sodium lactate: 0 to 4% of a 60% sodium lactate syrup pH: 5.8, 6.2, 6.6 | Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium lactate pH | A model was developed to predict the maximum growth rate of Listeria innocua in a broth model; this model was then evaluated in Bologna-type sausages made with 5 different sodium lactate levels at 3 different pH levels. |
| Hsu, H., Sheen, S., Sites, J., Cassidy, J., Scullen, B., and Sommers, C. 2015. Effect of high pressure processing on the survival of shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (big six vs. O157:H7) in ground beef. Food Microbiol. 48:1. | Raw | Ground beef, 83% lean | Beef | Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (Big Six, i.e., O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, and O145) and O157:H7 | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: · HPP time: 5, 15, or 30 min · Storage time: 8-9 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 4 to 7°C · Maximum pressure in chamber when highest pressure was applied: 35°C · Storage temperature: 10°C Spatial Configuration: · 5 g aliquots of thawed ground beef were inoculated by mixing, then sealed to 50 millibars using a Multi-Vac A300 packager, then sealed in a polynylon bag as a secondary barrier prior to HPP treatment. Pressure: · Pressure come-up rate: 100 MPa/15 sec · Release rate: 100 MPa/9 sec · Pressures: 230, 350, or 450 MPa Equipment Settings: See paper for details on HPP equipment Other: · Ground beef was 83% lean | Time: · HPP time · Storage time Temperature: · HPP temperature · Storage temperature | A >5-log CFU/g inactivation of both the Big Six and O157:H7 cocktails were observed at 450 MPa for 15 min. In general, the Big Six cocktail was found more sensitive to pressure stress (p < 0.05). In contrast, HPP treatment at 250 MPa (30 min) inactivated only 2.3 log of the Big Six versus 1.0 log of O157:H7. HPP treatment at 350 MPa (30 min) inactivated 4.7 log of the Big Six vs. 3.2 log of O157:H7. Multiple-cycle HPP cycles (250 or 350 MPa, three 5 min treatments) did not result in a 5 log reduction of the non-O157:H7 or O157:H7 STEC. Our results indicate that HPP inactivation parameters which are effective for O157:H7 STEC can be used for the non-O157:H7 Big Six isolates in ground beef. |
| Huang LH, Juneja VK (2003) Thermal inactivation of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 in ground beef supplemented with sodium lactate. J Food Prot 66 (4):664-667. | Raw (cooking lethality) | 93% lean ground beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate) Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Come-up times: 8 to 10 sec Incubation time temperature Temperature: Thermal treatment (water bath temperatures): 55 to 65°C Concentration: Sodium lactate (NaL): 0 to 4.5% Product Coverage: Sodium lactate was mixed into meat using a stomacher at maximum speed for 6 min Spatial Configuration: 50 g samples of ground beef, pressed flat to 1 to 1.5 mm thickness Other: Inoculated samples were vacuum sealed to 15 mm Hg | Time: Incubation time at temperature Temperature: Thermal treatment temperature | Sodium lactate had no effect on D-values for E. coli O157:H7 in 93% lean ground beef. D values (55°C) ranged from 10.91 min to 11.16 minutes. D values (65°C) ranged from 0.71 to 0.75 minutes. |
| Huang, L., Li, C., and Hwang, C.-A. 2018. Growth/no growth boundary of Clostridium perfringens from spores in cooked meat: A logistic analysis. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 266:257. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked ground beef | Beef | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: · Heat shock time: 20 min · Cooling time: 15 min · Storage time: 24 hours Temperature: · Heat shock temperature: 75°C · Cooling temperature: room temperature · Storage temperature: 47°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 0 to 5% · Sodium lactate: 0 to 5% · Sodium tripolyphosphate: 0 to 2500 ppm Product Coverage: Antimicrobials and inoculum were mixed with ground beef prior to heat-shocking Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples of beef Other: Samples were stored in an anaerobic chamber | Time: Storage time after cooking Temperature: Storage temperature Antimicrobials: Sodium chloride, sodium lactate, and sodium tripolyphosphate | This study demonstrated that proper combinations of STPP, NaL, and NaCl can not only effectively suppress the growth of but also kill C. perfringens in cooked ground beef even under the optimum condition at 47 °C for up to 24 h, suggesting that they can be used to ensure no growth of this microorganism |
| Hwang, C. A., Huang, L. H., and Juneja, V. 2015. Effect of acidified sorbate solutions on the lag-phase durations and growth rates of Listeria monocytogenes on meat surfaces. J. Food Prot. 78:1154. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Sliced cooked ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium sorbate solutions acidified with HCl to pH values between 4.0 and 6.5) pH control | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Storage time: up to 45 days Sorbate dip time: 30 min Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 to 12°C Concentration: Salt concentration in ham: 2.3% Sorbate concentration: 0 to 4% (wt/vol) Water Activity: Ham water activity: 0.98 pH: Ham pH: 6.8 Sorbate solutions: 4.0 to 6.5 Contact Time: Sorbate dips lasted 30 min Product Coverage: Inoculated ham slices were dipped into sorbate solutions Spatial Configuration: Ham slices were cut into slices 3 x 3 x 0.3 cm and weighed ~4 g; inoculum was applied to the surface before the sorbate dips Other: Ham slices were vacuum packaged for storage | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Acidified sorbate solution pH: pH of acidified sorbate solution | Ham slices were inoculated with L. monocytogenes, dipped in sorbate solutions at various pHs, and then stored at different temperatures and lengths of time. The lag phase duration (LPD) and growth rates (GR) were measured and used to develop response surface models. Use of sorbate ≥2% extended the LPD and decreased the growth rate. Sorbate solutions at higher concentrations and lower pH levels delayed L. monocytogenes growth on the ham slices. |
| Iannetti, L., Salini, R., Sperandii, A. F., Santarelli, G. A., Neri, D., Di Marzio, V., Romantini, R., Migliorati, G., and Baranyi, J. 2017. Predicting the kinetics of Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica under dynamic growth/death-inducing conditions, in Italian style fresh sausage. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 240:108. | NFC/NSS | Traditional Italian-style fresh sausage | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Yersinia enterocolitica | Water activity control (Drying) | Inhibition of pathogen growth Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage time: 480 hours Temperature: Storage temperature: 8 to 20°C Concentration: Salt in formulation: 20-22 g/kg Water Activity: See graphs within the paper Product Coverage: Sausages were inoculated at three different points in a volume of 0.6 mL (<1% of the volume of the food) Spatial Configuration: Pig gut casings were used for the sausages, which were about 10 cm long and 4 cm in diameter Other: Sausage batter contained 20% fat | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Water activity Other: Lactic acid bacteria growth | When fresh Italian-style sausage is stored over time, the environment within the sausage changes from one which can support the growth of pathogens such as L. monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica to one where these bacteria die, primarily because of changes in water activity over time (pH changes were minimal). The growth and of L. monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica in Italian-style fresh sausage during storage at different temperatures was predicted using published models and other data. |
| ICMSF (1996) Information Related to Meat Fermentations at Temperatures of 115F or Higher. | NHT/SS | Fermented meat products | Not specified | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus aureus | Heat treatment | Inhibition of pathogen growth Prevention of toxin production | Temperature: Fermentation temperature | Temperature: Fermentation temperatures ≥115°F | Normally, there is a concern about pathogen growth and toxin production by Staphylococcus aureus during fermentations that are too slow. To avoid this problem, processors normally use ‘degree-hour values as Critical Limits. These values indicate how quickly the product pH must reach 5.3 or lower at various fermentation temperatures. However, there are no degree-hour values provided for fermentation temperatures of 115°F or higher. The attached textbook information shows that growth of Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7, and toxin production by Staphylococcus aureus are not reasonably likely to occur at 115°F or warmer. As a result, no time Critical Limit is necessary for a fermentation step done at 115°F or warmer. |
| Ingham, S. C., Engel, R. A., Fanslau, M. A., Schoeller, E. L., Searls, G., Buege, D. R., and Zhu, J. 2005. Fate of Staphylococcus aureus on vacuum-packaged ready-to-eat meat products stored at 21 degrees C. J. Food Prot. 68:1911. | FC/NSS NHT/SS HT/SS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Various commercial RTE meat products, including jerky, beef snack sticks, pepperoni, salami (dried or cooked), Bologna, and summer sausage | Beef Pork | Staphylococcus aureus | pH control Water activity control (Drying) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Storage time: up to 28 days Temperature: · Storage temperature: 21°C Concentration: · Not specified, but products presumably had variable amounts of salt, nitrite, and other ingredients. Water Activity: · 0.68 to 0.96 pH: · 4.4 to 6.4 Spatial Configuration: · 3 x 5 x 1 cm slices weighing about 20 g; products were inoculated on their surface Other: · Products were stored under vacuum · Moisture: protein ratio: 0.4 to 3.3 | pH: Product pH ≤5.1 Water activity: Product water activity ≤0.82 Other: · Moisture: protein ratio ≤0.8 · Percentage water-phase salt Note that water activity, moisture: protein ratio, and percentage water-phase salt are all related parameters | In this study, 34 samples of various ready-to-eat meat products were inoculated with a three-strain mixture of S. aureus, vacuum packaged, and stored at 21°C for 4 weeks. S. aureus numbers decreased by 1.1 to 5.6 log CFU on fermented products (pH≤5.1) with a wide range of salt concentrations and moisture content. Similarly, S. aureus numbers decreased by 3.2 to 4.5 log CFU on dried nonacidified jerky (aw ≤0.82; moisture:protein ratio of ≤0.8). Products that were not fermented or dried clearly supported S. aureus growth and cannot be considered shelf stable. The product pH and moisture:protein ratio were the two compositional factors most highly correlated (R2=0.84) with S. aureus survival and growth for the types of products tested, but pH and aw or pH and percentage of water-phase salt also may provide useful predictive guidance (R2=0.81 and 0.77, respectively). Processors could consider vacuum-packaged summer sausage with a pH of ≤4.9 and an MPR of ≤3.3 to be shelf stable in terms of pathogenic bacterial growth. Processing treatments reducing aw and preventing S. aureus growth should also prevent L. monocytogenes growth. Therefore, the shelf stability of nonrefrigerated semidry sausage and perhaps other RTE meat products could be defined strictly in terms of whether S. aureus growth occur. |
| Ingham, S. C., Losinski, J. A., Dropp, B. K., Vivio, L. L., and Buege, D. R. 2004. Evaluation of Staphylococcus aureus growth potential in ham during a slow-cooking process: Use of predictions derived from the US Department of Agriculture Pathogen Modeling Program 6.1 predictive model and an inoculation study. J. Food Prot. 67:1512. | Raw | Bone-in hams | Pork | Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, sodium chloride, and sodium nitrite) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Surface inoculated cooking schedule (incubator temperature): o 22°C: 30 min o 37°C: 1.5 hour o 47°C: 2.0 hour · Interior inoculated cooking schedule (water bath temperature: o 8.3 to 54.8°C in 14 hours (see paper for details) Temperature: See above and paper for details Concentration: · Sodium lactate: ≥2.3% · Sodium chloride: ≥0.8% · 200 ppm sodium nitrite Product Coverage: Lactate, salt, and sodium nitrite were in ham formulation Spatial Configuration: Samples were taken from the exterior of the ham (5 x 5 x 1.2 cm) for surface inoculation or interior (ground interior meat, 5 g) to be inoculated in the center of the sample Other: · Hams were pumped to a target level of 18% · Surface-inoculated samples were incubated in petri plates without lids in incubators | Time: · Time within each temperature range (10 and 34°C; 34 and 46°C, and 46 and 54.4°C) Temperature: · Product internal temperature Concentration: · Sodium lactate · Sodium chloride · Sodium nitrite Other: · Pumping with brine for a weight gain of 18% | Ham samples were inoculated to mimic surface or interior contamination with S. aureus, then incubated to mimic a slow cooking process. Growth of S. aureus was compared to that predicted by the Pathogen Modeling Program 6.1 (PMP 6.1). Contamination on the interior of ground ham samples did not grow more than 0.7 logs during the 14-hour cooking program; in contrast, the PMP 6.1 predicted ~3 logs of growth, which would cause significant toxin formation and illnesses if consumed. The discrepancy is likely due to the formulation ingredients in the ham (sodium lactate, sodium chloride, and sodium nitrite). Contamination on the surface of the exterior ham samples did not show any significant growth during the 3.5 hour cooking process; in contrast, the PMP 6.1 predicted some growth but not enough to cause illnesses unless initial S. aureus numbers were extremely high. For hams having a composition similar to those used in this study, the inoculation study results clearly showed that slow-cooking critical limits for product internal temperature of ≤4 h between 10 and 34°C, ≤5 h between 34 and 46°C, and ≤5 h between 46 and 54.4°C will not allow growth of S. aureus to levels where enough toxin is produced to cause illness. Thus, the critical limits are safe and could be validated for use in HACCP plans. Key compositional levels that should be met for pumped hams cooked according to these critical limits would be a weight gain of 18% (wt/wt), ≥2.3% sodium lactate, ≥0.8% sodium chloride, and 200 ppm sodium nitrite (the legal maximum). |
| Ingham, S. C., Vang, S., Levey, B., Fahey, L., Norback, J. P., Fanslau, M. A., Senecal, A. G., Burnham, G. M., and Ingham, B. H. 2009. Predicting behavior of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella serovars, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in pork products during single and repeated temperature abuse periods. J. Food Prot. 72:2114. | Various | Pork products (bratwurst, spiced pork sausage, hot-boned pork sausage, pork frankfurter, sausage patty, enhance pork loin, natural pork chop) | Pork | Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella spp. E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Temperature abuse period: 4 to 24 hours Temperature: Temperature abuse conditions: various, between 9°C and 28°C; in some cases multiple periods of abuse were tested Concentration: Meat products tested contained various levels of salt and other ingredients Water Activity: 0.97 to 0.98 pH: 5.8 to 6.5 Spatial Configuration: See paper for details Other: % moisture: 44.1 to 75.5 % protein: 11.7 to 22.5 % fat: 2.2 to 41.6 % salt: 0.8 to 2.2 | Time: Time of temperature abuse Temperature: Temperatures between 50 and 115°F | A variety of pork products were inoculated with three pathogens and were subjected to temperature abuse. Observed pathogen growth was compared to that predicted by THERM (https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/pathogen_modeling/therm.html) tools which were developed based on ground pork and pork sausage. Across all temperature abuse conditions, qualitative predictions (growth versus no growth) made using the pork tool (n ~ 133) and the sausage tool (n ~ 115) were accurate (51 and 50%, respectively), fail-safe (44 and 50%), or fail-dangerous (5 and 0%). Quantitative predictions from the two tools were accurate (29 and 22%, respectively), fail-safe (59 and 73%), or fail-dangerous (12 and 5%). In conclusion, THERM tools general provide accurate or fail-safe growth and no-growth predictions of pathogen growth in raw pork products subjected to a range of temperature abuse conditions. Processors can use the THERM sausage tool for predicting pathogen growth in pork products containing salt and the THERM pork tool for making predictions about additive-free pork products. These tools will be useful to processors for supporting corrective actions taken after a deviation. |
| Jackson, A. L., Kulchaiyawat, C., Sullivan, G. A., Sebranek, J. G., and Dickson, J. S. 2011. Use of natural ingredients to control growth of Clostridium perfringens in naturally cured frankfurters and hams. J. Food Prot. 74:417. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Naturally cured frankfurters and hams | Beef and pork (frankfurters) Pork | Clostridium perfringens (from spores) | Antimicrobials Frankfurters and hams were formulated in the following ways: A: uncured control B: conventionally cured control (including nitrite, erythorbate, and a lactate-diacetate blend) C: Natural nitrate plus starter culture D: Natural nitrate plus starter culture plus antimicrobial A E: Natural nitrate plus starter culture plus antimicrobial B F: Natural nitrite source G: Natural nitrite source plus antimicrobial A H: Natural nitrite source plus antimicrobial B Starter culture = Staphylococcus carnasus Antimicrobial A= vinegar/lemon/cherry powder blend Antimicrobial B = cultured sugar plus vinegar blend) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Heat shock of samples after inoculation: 20 min · Cooling time: no more than 1.5 hours between 54.4 and 26.6°C; no more than 5 hours between 26.6 and 40°C · Time to equilibrate to 20°C: ~ 2 hours · Storage time: up to ~10 days Temperature: · Heat shock: to an internal temperature of 75°C · Cooling temperatures (see above under time) · Storage temperature: 20°C Concentration: All frankfurters had 2.25% salt Some formulations had the following: · Sodium nitrite: 156 ppm · Sodium erythorbate: 550 ppm · Lactate-diacetate blend: 2.5% · Natural nitrate cure: 0.2% · Starter culture: 4.41 g · Antimicrobial A (vinegar, lemon, cherry powder): 1.4% · Antimicrobial B (cultured sugar, vinegar blend): not specified · Natural nitrite cure: 0.45% pH: Hams: 6.09 to 6.31 Spatial Configuration: · Frankfurters: 33 mm impermeable casings were used · Ham was sliced to 1.5 mm thickness · 25 g samples of each treatment of frankfurter or ham were inoculated in the interior or surface, respectively Other: · Frankfurters were formulated with 30% fat · Samples were vacuum packaged prior to heat shocking · Residual nitrite levels in frankfurters: 2.00 to 39.91 ppm · Residual nitrate levels in frankfurters: 20.15 to 71.80 ppm · Residual nitrate levels in hams: 0.48 to 20.6 ppm · Residual nitrite in hams: 2.59 to 50.78 ppm | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Presence and concentration of specific antimicrobials include nitrite Other: Product composition (varying results between frankfurter and ham, not proven but suggested to result from product residual nitrite, moisture content, and pH) | Eight different formulations of frankfurters and hams were made and tested for how well C. perfringens grew in them when stored at 20°C. C. perfringens grew to ~7-8 log in the uncured controls within 2-4 days. No C. perfringens growth was obtained with the conventionally cured products (which contained nitrite, erythorbate, and a lactate-diacetate blend). For the hams, treatments C, D, E, and H impacted growth of Clostridium perfringens to the same extent as the conventionally cured control (approximately 2 log less growth over time than uncured control). For frankfurters, treatments D, G, and H had an effect (approximately 1 log) on growth equivalent to that of the conventionally cured control. These results suggest that natural/organic cured meats have more potential for pathogen growth than conventionally cured products, but supplemental natural ingredients offer safety improvement. |
| Jacob, R., Porto-Fett, A. C. S., Call, J. E., and Luchansky, J. B. 2009. Fate of Surface-Inoculated Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella Typhimurium on Kippered Beef during Extended Storage at Refrigeration and Abusive Temperatures. J. Food Prot. 72:403. | HT/SS | Kippered beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Refrigeration) Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Storage time: up to 28 days Temperature: · Storage temperature: 4, 10, 21, or 30°C Concentration: · Salt: 5.83 g/100g in product · Sodium nitrite was used to make the beef Water Activity: 0.648 pH: 5.83 Spatial Configuration: 3.5 x 2.5 x 0.3 cm pieces Other: · Proximate composition of kippered beef: · Moisture protein ratio: 1.28 · Moisture: 41.90 g/100 g · Protein: 32.70 g/100 g · Fat: 5.06 g/100 g · Carbohydrates: 14.25 g/100 g · Pathogens were surface inoculated prior to vacuum packaging for storage | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature | When kippered beef was inoculated with E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, or L. monocytogenes and stored at 4, 10, 21, or 30C for up to 28 days, pathogen numbers decreased ca. 0.4 to 0.9, 1.0 to 1.8, 3.0 to 5.25, and 5.0 to 5.25 log CFU per piece, respectively. Average D-values for E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes stored at 4 to 30C for 28 days were ca. 41 to 4.6, 40.8 to 5.3, and 29.5 to 4.3 days, respectively. As expected, the higher the storage temperature, the greater the level and rate of inactivation for all three pathogens. …refrigerated storage of kippered beef prevents pathogen outgrowth, whereas storage at ambient temperature, as is typical at retail, is effective in reducing levels of E. coli O157: H7, L. monocytogenes, or Salmonella Typhimurium that may on occasion be present on the surface of such products as a result of postprocess contamination. |
| Joerger, R. D., Sabesan, S., Visioli, D., Urian, D., and Joerger, M. C. 2009. Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan Attached to Ethylene Copolymer Films. Packaging Technology and Science 22:125. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Oven-roasted turkey breast slices | Turkey | L. monocytogenes | Temperature control (heat treatment) Antimicrobials (chitosan, sodium diacetate) Packaging (chitosan-coated ethylene copolymer film) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: Chitosan film drying time: 24 hours Heat treatment time: 5 min HPP time: Not specified Storage time: Up to 35 days Temperature: Heat treatment temperature: 55°C Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: Chitosan: 2% (w/v) solution was applied to a corona-treated film Sodium diacetate: 1% solution Product Coverage: Chitosan films were used to cover samples. Sodium acetate solution was applied as a dip. Spatial Configuration: 1 cm x 1 cm x 1.5 mm pieces of slices were inoculated, then wrapped in a chitosan-coated film or a control film prior to vacuum packaging. Pressure: 350 MPa, applied after wrapping in films Equipment Settings: Other: Turkey slices were 98% fat-free See paper for details on how chitosan-coating of films was performed. Chitosan film was about 1.2 microns thick | Time: · Storage time · Heat treatment time · (HPP time was not specified) Temperature: Heat treatment temperature Concentration: · Chitosan · Sodium diacetate Pressure: HPP pressure | The ability of a chitosan-coated film (alone, or together with HPP treatment, a sodium diacetate dip, or a 55°C heat treatment) in reducing L. monocytogenes on RTE turkey slices during up to 15 days of storage at 4°C was tested in this study. Turkey samples coated with the chitosan-coated films had consistently greater reductions in L. monocytogenes levels at 1 week (~1.2 log reduction) than did those covered with a control film (which showed ~0.9 log reduction) , but by 4 weeks, the two films were not significantly different from each other. The addition of HPP, a heat treatment, or a sodium diacetate dip resulted in greater decreases in L. monocytogenes during storage, suggesting a synergistic effect. The combination of chitosan film and sodium diacetate dip was the most effective at maintaining the lowest L. monocytogenes levels over 35 days of storage at 4°C |
| Jofre A, Aymerich T, Garriga M (2008) Assessment of the effectiveness of antimicrobial packaging combined with high pressure to control Salmonella sp in cooked ham. Food Control 19 (6):634-638. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Sliced cooked ham | Pork | Salmonella spp. | High-pressure processing Packaging (with interleavers containing antimicrobials enterocins A and B, Sakacin K, nisin A, potassium lactate, or nisin plus lactate) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · HPP time: 10 min · Pressure come-up time: 13.17 min · Pressure release time: 1.33 min · Storage time: Up to 90 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 17°C · Adiabatic heating during HPP: <5°C · Storage temperature: 6°C Concentration: · In ham formulation: o Salt: 20.7 g/kg o Sodium nitrite: 0.1 g/kg o Ascorbate: 0.6 g/kg · Applied in interleavers: o Enterocins A and B: 200 or 2000 AU/cm2 o Sakacin K: 200 or 2000 AU/cm2 o Nisin A: 200 AU/cm2 o Potassium lactate: 1.8% Spatial Configuration: · Interleavers were applied on top of inoculated ham slices · Pairs of slices (11 cm in diameter and 1.5 mm thick) were vacuum packaged in plastic PET/PE bags Pressure: 400 MPa Other: · See paper for preparation of interleavers | Time: · HPP time · Storage time Temperature: · Storage temperature Concentration: · Nisin concentration Pressure: HPP pressure | This study investigated how HPP, alone and in combination with antimicrobials present in packaging, affected the presence of Salmonella spp. on the surface of cooked ham slices during 3 months of time at 6°C. Antimicrobial packaging alone did not reduce Salmonella levels during 90 days of storage beyond what was seen in the no-antimicrobial control (a reduction of about 1.5 log over 3 months). HPP alone greatly and rapidly reduced Salmonella spp. counts from 4 log CFU/g to 1 log CFU/g, which was maintained for 90 days. HPP in combination with nisin-containing interleavers was able to completely eliminate Salmonella 24 hours after pressurization. |
| Jofre, A., Aymerich, T., Grebol, N., and Garriga, M. 2009. Efficiency of high hydrostatic pressure at 600 MPa against food-borne microorganisms by challenge tests on convenience meat products. LWT-Food Science and Technology 42:924. | FC/NSS NHT/SS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Sliced cooked ham Sliced dry-cured ham Marinated beef loin | Pork Beef | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella enterica Staphylococcus aureus Yersinia enterocolitica Campylobacter jejuni | High-pressure processing Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Storage prior to HPP: 24 hours · Come-up time: 125 sec · HPP time: 6 min · Pressure release time: immediate · Storage time after HPP: up to 120 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 31°C · Storage temperature (before and after HPP): 4°C Concentration: Cooked ham · 17.8 g/kg sodium chloride · 1.5 g/kg sodium citrate · 0.5 g/kg sodium ascorbate · 0.12 g/kg sodium nitrite Dry cured ham · 46 g/kg sodium chloride · 0.2 g/kg potassium nitrate Marinated beef loin · 10 g/kg sodium chloride · 2 g/kg sodium tri-polyphosphate · 0.6 g/kg sodium ascorbate · 0.2 g/kg sodium nitrite Spatial Configuration: Slices of all three products were 1.5 mm and ~40 g; slices were inoculated between 2 slices and vacuum packaged (2 slices per bag) Pressure: 600 MPa Equipment Settings: An industrial unit was used. Other: Bottom film was polystyrene–EVOH based and upper film was polyethylene–EVOH based | Time: HPP time Storage time Pressure: HPP pressure Other: Type of meat product | This study tested the effect of 600 MPa high-pressure processing on a variety of pathogens (tested independently) on three different types of RTE meats, both immediately after HPP treatment and also during long-term storage. Without HPP treatment, only L. monocytogenes grew (and only in the cooked ham product) during the 120 storage period. Salmonella and S. aureus remained at the levels at which they were originally inoculated during the storage period in all of the meat products. In dry-cured ham and beef loin, Y. enterocolitica levels declined to below the detection limit during the first 30 days of storage and remained there for 120 days. C. jejuni was present at some level throughout the 120 day storage period. Immediately after HPP treatment, C. jejuni and Y. enterocolitica were not detected in the product. Salmonella and L. monocytogenes levels were reduced ~3.5 log in all products, but could still be detected in the two ham products. S. aureus numbers dropped 0.5 to 2.7 log depending on the type of meat product. During storage, C. jejuni and Y. enterocolitica levels remained below the detection limit for the entire 120 days storage period. Salmonella and L. monocytogenes levels also remained <10 CFU/g in the ham products and was undetectable in the beef product during the entire storage period. S. aureus levels in cooked continued to decreased during storage and reached <10 CFU/g after 120 days. In other products, S. aureus levels remained at the levels that were found immediately after HPP treatment. |
| Jofre, A., Garriga, M., and Aymerich, T. 2008. Inhibition of Salmonella sp. Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in cooked ham by combining antimicrobials, high hydrostatic pressure and refrigeration. Meat Sci. 78:53. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked, sliced ham | Pork | Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes Staphylococcus aureus | Temperature control (Refrigeration) Antimicrobials (Nisin, potassium lactate) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: HPP time: 5 minutes HPP come-up time: 6.8 min HPP release time: 0.8 min Storage time: 3 months Temperature: HPP temperature: 10°C Storage temperature: 1 and 6°C Concentration: · Ham formulations contained 20.7 g/kg salt; 0.1 g/Kg sodium nitrite, and 0.6 g/Kg L-ascorbate · Some formulations contained the following o Nisin: 800 AU/g o Potassium lactate: 1.8% Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were in product formulation Spatial Configuration: Ham slices were 1.5 mm thick and were inoculated with the pathogen cocktails just prior to HPP. Pressure: HPP pressure: 600 MPa Equipment Settings: Other: Slices were vacuum packaged in PET?PE bags | Pathogen Reduction Time: HPP time Pressure: (for L. monocytogenes and Salmonella spp.) Inhibition of Pathogen Growth during Storage Time: HPP time Storage time (for L. monocytogenes w/o HPP) Temperature: Storage temperature (all pathogens tested) Concentration: Nisin and potassium lactate (for L. monocytogenes w/o HPP) Pressure: HPP pressure | The abilities of various combinations of antimicrobials (nisin and potassium lactate), HPP processing, and refrigerated storage to control the growth of Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus in cooked ham over three months was tested. In non-HPP sliced cooked ham, the addition of nisin plus lactate inhibited the growth of L. monocytogenes during the entire storage period while the refrigerated storage inhibited the growth of Salmonella sp. and S. aureus. The application of an HPP reduced the levels of Salmonella and L. monocytogenes to levels below 10 CFU/g. These levels continued until the end of storage at both 1 and 6°C. HPP produced a reduction of less than 1 Log CFU/g to S. aureus. The combination of HPP, nisin and refrigeration at 6°C was necessary to decrease the levels of S. aureus by 2.4 Log CFU/g after 3-months of storage. |
| Juneja VK (2006) Delayed Clostridium perfringens growth from a spore inocula by sodium lactate in sous-vide chicken products. Food Microbiology 23 (2):105-111. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Sous vide marinated chicken breast (thin sliced, skinless and boneless)) | Chicken | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate) | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth Pathogen reduction | Time: · Processing time: until an internal temperature of 71.1°C was reached · Storage time: up to 28 days · Thermal treatment: time at 55°C Temperature: · Processing (internal) temperature: 71.1°C, then quickly cooled on ice · Storage temperature: 4, 19, and 25°C · Thermal treatment: 55°C Concentration: Sodium lactate: 0 to 4.8% final concentration (w/w) in marinated chicken pH: 5.0 Product Coverage: Sodium lactate was distributed within the sample by use of a stomacher for 2 min Spatial Configuration: 60 g of skinless, boneless, thin-sliced chicken breasts were tested Other: · Chicken was marinated in a mole sauce supplemented with 1% additional sodium chloride · Inoculation with heat-shocked C. perfringens spores were added just after the sodium lactate was added Samples were vacuum packaged after inoculation | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of sodium lactate Pathogen reduction Time: Time at 55°C Temperature: Temperature of heat treatment (55°C) | This study tested C. perfringens growth in marinated, sous-vide-cooked chicken breasts containing sodium lactate, and determined what heat treatment could kill vegetative cells growing in temperature-abused sous-vide cooked chicken. Sodium lactate at ≥1.5% delayed and reduced the extent of C. perfringens growth at 25°C for 52 hours. A higher concentration (3%) further restricted growth, allowing for <1.5 log growth after 144 hours. Supplementation with 4.8% sodium lactate permitted no growth at 25°C for 480 hours. At 19°C, no growth was seen through 120 hours even without sodium lactate, but reached >6 log by 288 hours; the addition of sodium lactate at 3 or 4.8% restricted growth for up to 648 hours at 19°C. At 4°C, no growth was seen over 28 days, regardless of the presence or absence of sodium lactate. Various cyclic and static temperature abuse programs were also tested, and sodium lactate was effective in controlling C. perfringens growth (see paper for details). D-values (55°C) for C. perfringens in marinated chicken breasts increased from 47.40 to 57.78 min upon addition of lactate. |
| Juneja VK, Eblen BS (2000) Heat inactivation of Salmonella typhimurium DT104 in beef as affected by fat content. Letters in Applied Microbiology 30 (6):461-467. | Raw (cooking lethality) | Beef | Beef | Salmonella DT104 | Heat treatment | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Initial equilibrium incubation: 90 min · Heat treatment time: variable Temperature: · Initial equilibrium incubation: 4°C · Heat treatment: 58 to 65°C water bath Spatial Configuration: ground meat was inoculated, blended for 5 min, and aliquoted in 5-g samples into stomacher bags, compressed into a thin layer (1-2 mm thick) and heat sealed Other: Fat content: 7 to 24% fat | Time: · Heat treatment time Temperature: · Heat treatment temperature Other: Fat content | This study investigated how different fat contents in beef affected D-values for Salmonella DT104 at different temperatures. Inactivation in beef deviated from first-order kinetics. Higher fat levels resulted in longer lag periods but lower D-values for Salmonella DT104. Lag period need to be considered when calculating the time required at a certain temperature to achieve a certain lethality. To achieve a 7-log reduction for Salmonella DT104 in ground beef: 58°C for 53.5 min at 7% fat 58°C for 208.1 min at 24% fat 65°C for 7.1 min at 7% fat 65°C for 20.1 min at 24% fat |
| Juneja VK, Hwang CA, Friedman M (2010) Thermal Inactivation and Postthermal Treatment Growth during Storage of Multiple Salmonella Serotypes in Ground Beef as Affected by Sodium Lactate and Oregano Oil. Journal of Food Science 75 (1):M1-M6. | Raw (Cooking lethality | Ground beef (95% lean) | Beef | Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, oregano oil) Heat treatment | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Thermal treatment: until 5-6 log CFU/g reductions were obtained (up to 12 min) · Post-thermal treatment storage: 15 or 30 days Temperature: · Thermal treatment: 60 to 71°C (water bath temperature) · Post-thermal storage: 15°C Concentration: · Sodium lactate: 1.5% or 3% · Oregano oil: 0.5% or 1% pH: Beef pH: 5.46 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with ground meat Spatial Configuration: 3 g samples in polyethylene bags and compressed into 0.5 to 1 mm thicknesses | Time: · Heat treatment Temperature: · Heat treatment Concentration: · Sodium lactate · Oregano oil | This study investigated the heat inactivation of Salmonella in ground beef in the presence of sodium lactate and oregano oil. Heating at 60°C for 12 min resulted in a 5.7 log CFU/g reduction of Salmonella. The presence of oregano oil increased the rate of Salmonella inactivation during thermal treatment. In contrast, sodium lactate decreased the rate of inactivation. Addition of mixtures of oregano oil and sodium lactate could overcome the protective effect of oregano oil. In addition, the combination of lactate and oregano oil is more effective in increasing the inactivation rate of Salmonella in ground beef than either lactate or oregano oil alone. During post-treatment storage, Salmonella in samples containing oregano oil at 0.5% or 1% showed some growth following lower heat treatment temperatures. Very little or no growth was observed when lactate was present or when a high heat treatment temperature was used. |
| Juneja VK, Thippareddi H, Friedman M (2006) Control of Clostridium perfringens in cooked ground beef by carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, or oregano oil during chilling. J Food Prot 69 (7):1546-1551. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked ground beef | Beef | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, or oregano oil) Time (Cooling time) | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: · Cooking time: 1 hour · Cooling time: 12 to 21 hours (exponential) Temperature: · Cooking temperature: 60°C · Cooling temperature: 54.4 to 7.2°C (exponential cooling) Concentration: · Carvacrol: 0.1 to 2.0% (wt/wt) · Cinnamaldehyde: 0.1 to 2.0% (wt/wt) · Thymol: 0.1 to 2.0% (wt/wt) · Oregano oil: 0.1 to 2.0% (wt/wt) Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples of meat Other: Meat samples were vacuum packaged | Time · Cooling time: 12 to 21 hours (exponential) Temperature: · Cooling temperature: 54.4 to 7.2°C (exponential cooling) Concentration: · Concentration of carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, or oregano oil | This study tested the effects of various concentrations of clean-label antimicrobials on their ability to control C. perfringens in cooked ground beef during cooling over 12 to 21 hours. All tested levels of the compounds prevented C. perfringens growth when cooling was done over a 12-hour period. Higher concentrations were needed when cooling was performed over a longer time period. Cinnamaldehyde was more effective at a lower concentration than the other agents during a 21-hour cooling period. |
| Juneja, V. K., Bari, M. L., Inatsu, Y., Kawamoto, S., and Friedman, M. 2007. Control of Clostridium perfringens spores by green tea leaf extracts during cooling of cooked ground beef, chicken, and pork. Journal of Food Protection 70:1429. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked ground beef, chicken, and pork | Beef Chicken Pork | Clostridium perfringens (spores) | Antimicrobials (Green tea extracts with different levels of catechins) | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: · Heat shocking time: 1 hour · Initial equilibrium to 54.4°C: 10 min · Chilling time from 54.4 to 7.2°C: 12, 15, 18, or 21 hours Temperature: · Cook temperature: 54.5°C · Chilling temperatures: 54.4 to 7.2°C Concentration: · Green tea extracts: 0.5, 1, and 2% (w/w) · Concentration of catechins within extracts: o Low: 141 mg/g green tea extract o High: 697 mg/g green tea extract Product Coverage: Green tea extracts were mixed with the meat along with the spore cocktail before samples were aliquoted and vacuum packaged Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples Other: The ground beef was 93% lean; the ground pork and ground chicken was also described as lean | Time: Chilling time Temperature: Chilling temperature Concentration: Catechin concentration | None of the concentrations of the LOW catechin green tea extract inhibited C. perfringens growth from spores; however, the addition of 1 or 2% of the high catechin content green tea extract to cooked beef, chicken, or pork resulted in a concentration-and time- dependent inhibition of C. perfringens spore outgrowth. At the highest concentration of green tea extract (2%) containing the high level of catechins (697 mg/g green tea extract), |
| Karyotis D, Skandamis PN, Juneja VK (2017) Thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. in sous-vide processed marinated chicken breast. Food Research International 100:894-898. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Marinated chicken breast | Chicken | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobial (Marinade) Temperature control (Sous vide heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Initial incubation of samples following immersion in 23°C water bath until final water bath cooking temperature was reached: 1 hour Cooking time: up to 300 min Temperature: Chicken meat starting sample: 4°C Water bath starting temperature: 23°C Water bath cooking temperature: 55, 57.5, or 60°C Concentration: Marinade was a commercial teriyaki product that contained vinegar, soy sauce, salt, and other ingredients Product Coverage: Marinade covered the meat Spatial Configuration: chicken pieces weighed 5 g each and were 1.5 cm thick Other: Products were vacuum sealed with marinade prior to cooking | Time: Cooking time Temperature: Water bath temperature Concentration: Presence of marinade | Marination resulted in lower D-values than control samples for both Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp.. At 55°C, the D-value for L. monocytogenes in chicken breast was reduced by almost 8 min, while at 60°C, it was reduced by about 3 min. Marination also decreased the heat resistance of Salmonella. As expected, L. monocytogenes was more heat resistant than Salmonella in their system. |
| Keto-Timonen R, Lindstrom M, Puolanne E, Niemisto M, Korkeala H (2012) Inhibition of toxigenesis of group II (nonproteolytic) Clostridium botulinum type b in meat products by using a reduced level of nitrite. J Food Prot 75 (7):1346-1349. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Finnish wiener-type sausage, bologna-type sausage, and cooked ham | Pork, sometimes with beef or poultry | Clostridium botulinum (non-proteolytic, type B) | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin production | Time: · Cooking time: 0.04 to 0.45 min · Storage time: 5 weeks Temperature: · Cooking temperature: 72°C · Storage temperature: 8°C Concentration: · Sodium nitrite (ingoing): 75 or 120 mg/kg · Sodium chloride: 1.6 to 1.8% Other: · Hams were inoculated at two different levels (2 or 4 cfu/g) · Products were inoculated into sausage or ham batter prior to cooking. · Products were vacuum packaged prior to storage | Concentration: Sodium nitrite | This study tested whether a lower (75 mg/kg) ingoing sodium nitrite concentration would control growth of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum (type B) in a variety of ready-to-eat meat products. Nitrite-free products had the highest C. botulinum counts during the 5-week storage period. None of the products with either 75 mg/kg or 120 mg/kg nitrite showed toxin formation during the 5-week storage period. All products without nitrite exhibited toxigenesis at 3 or 5 weeks. |
| King, A. M., Glass, K. A., Milkowski, A. L., and Sindelar, J. J. 2015. Comparison of the effect of curing ingredients derived from purified and natural sources on inhibition of Clostridium perfringens outgrowth during cooling of dell-style turkey breast. J. Food Prot. 78:1527. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ground deli-style turkey breast | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens (spores) | Antimicrobials (Nitrite from natural [celery juice powder] or purified sources, ascorbate from natural [cherry powder] or purified sources) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling (stabilization) | Time: · Heat treatment time: until 71°C was reached in product packages; ~5 min · Cooling time (54.4 to 26.7°C): 5 hours · Cooling time (26.7 to 7.2°C): 10 hours Temperature: · Heat treatment water bath temperature: 75°C · Internal temperature after heat treatment: 71°C · Cooling temperatures: see above under Time Concentration: · Salt (all formulations): 1.4% · Sodium tripolyphosphate (all formulations): 0.4% · Natural or purified nitrite: 0 to 100 ppm · Natural or purified ascorbate: 0 to 500 ppm Water Activity: · Formulated product in Part 1: 0.981 · Formulated product in Part 2: 0.980 pH: · Ground turkey breast was pH 6.2 · Formulated product in Part 1: 6.31 · Formulated product in Part 2: 6.22 Product Coverage: Nitrite and ascorbate were mixed with the ground meat in a brine for 3 min Spatial Configuration: 50 g portions of inoculated ground turkey were vacuum packaged, flattened to ~3 mm thickness, cooked, and chilled. Other: · Proximate analysis for Phase 1 products: o Moisture content: 74.2% o Sodium chloride: 1.31% o Residual nitrite: 73.1 ppm (purified nitrite source) or 78.6 ppm (natural nitrite source; see paper for more details · Proximate analysis for Phase 2 products: o Moisture content: 76.6% o Sodium chloride: 1.19% o Residual nitrite: see paper | Time: Cooling time Temperature: Cooling temperature profile Concentration: · Nitrite (from a natural or purified source) · Ascorbate (from a natural or purified source) | In the first part of this study, the ability of natural vs. purified sources of nitrite and ascorbate to prevent the growth of C. perfringens in deli-style turkey breast was tested. Uncured, purified nitrite, and natural nitrite treatments without ascorbate had 5.3-, 4.2-, and 4.4-log increases in C. perfringens, respectively, at 15 h, but <1-log increase was observed at the end of chilling in treatments containing 100 ppm of nitrite and 547 ppm of ascorbate from either source. In the second part of the study, levels of nitrite and ascorbate that are used in alternative curing formulations were tested. …0, 50, 75, and 100 ppm of nitrite and 50 ppm of nitrite plus 250 ppm of ascorbate supported 4.5-, 3.9-, 3.5-, 2.2-, and 1.5-log increases in C. perfringens, respectively. In contrast, <1-log increase was observed after 15 h in the remaining phase II treatments supplemented with 50 ppm of nitrite and 500 ppm of ascorbate or ≥75 ppm of nitrite and ≥250 ppm of ascorbate. These results confirm that equivalent concentrations of nitrite, regardless of the source, provide similar inhibition of C. perfringens during chilling and that ascorbate enhances the antimicrobial effect of nitrite on C. perfringens at concentrations commonly used in alternative cured meats. The addition of ascorbate did not result in appreciable nitrite depletion during the time allowed in this product and process. Without ascorbate, nitrite alone at 100 ppm may not be sufficient to prevent C. perfringens outgrowth even if the current Appendix B extended chilling option’s cooling profile is used. |
| King, A. M., Glass, K. A., Milkowski, A. L., and Sindelar, J. J. 2015. Impact of clean-label antimicrobials and nitrite derived from natural sources on the outgrowth of Clostridium perfringens during cooling of deli-style turkey breast. Journal of Food Protection 78:946. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ground deli-style turkey breast | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens (spores) | Antimicrobials (Nitrite from natural [celery juice powder] or purified sources, fruit extract, dried vinegar, a cultured sugar-vinegar blend, or a lemon-vinegar blend | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling (stabilization) | Time: · Heat treatment time: until 71.1°C was reached in product packages; ~5 min · Cooling time (54.4 to 26.7°C): 5 hours · Cooling time (26.7 to 7.2°C): 10 hours Temperature: · Initial storage temperature of meat prior to inoculation: 2.2 to 4.4°C · Heat treatment water bath temperature: 75°C · Internal temperature after heat treatment: 71°C · Cooling temperatures: see above under Time Concentration: · Salt (all formulations): 1.4% · Sodium tripolyphosphate (all formulations): 0.4% · Natural or purified nitrite: 0 to 50 ppm · (No ascorbate was used in this study) · Tropical fruit extract: 1.0% · Dried vinegar: 0.7% · Cultured sugar-vinegar: 1.0% · Lemon-vinegar blend: 2.0% · (See paper for details on these clean-label antimicrobials) Water Activity: 0.973 (all treatments) pH: 5.87 to 6.31 Product Coverage: Brine containing the antimicrobials was mixed with the ground turkey for 3 min Spatial Configuration: 50 g portions of inoculated ground turkey were vacuum packaged, flattened to ~3 mm thickness, cooked, and chilled. Other: · The ground turkey breast was 76% moisture, 1.2% salt. · See paper for details on vacuum packaging. · Proximate analysis showed l treatments had 1.18% NaCl and 75.6% moisture | Time: Cooling time Temperature: Cooling temperature profile Concentration: · Nitrite · Tropical fruit extract · Dried vinegar · Cultured sugar-vinegar · Lemon-vinegar blend | This study investigated whether nitrite derived from natural sources, together with clean-label antimicrobials (but without ascorbate), would be able to inhibit C. perfringens growth during cooling of deli-style turkey breast. The uncured control and a treatment with 50 ppm nitrite from a natural source allowed >4 log of C. perfringens growth at 15 hours. …although all antimicrobial treatments allowed less outgrowth than uncured and PCN, the degree of inhibition varied. The 1.0% fruit extract and 1.0% cultured sugar–vinegar blend were effective at controlling populations at or below initial levels, whether or not PCN was included. Without PCN, 0.7% dried vinegar and 2.0% lemon-vinegar blend allowed for 2.0- and 2.5-log increases, respectively, and ~1.5-log increases with PCN. Results suggest using clean-label antimicrobials can provide for safe cooling following the study parameters, and greater inhibition of C. perfringens may exist when antimicrobials are used with nitrite. |
| Ko, K. Y., Mendonca, A. F., and Ahn, D. U. 2008. Influence of zinc, sodium bicarbonate, and citric acid on the antibacterial activity of ovotransferrin against Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in model systems and ham. Poult. Sci. 87:2660. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Commercial hams | Pork | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (ovotransferrin, in combination with sodium bicarbonate or citric acid) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 29 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: Ovotransferrin: 20 mg/mL Sodium bicarbonate: 100 mM Citric acid: 0.5% Product Coverage: Surface of ham slices was coated with antimicrobials Spatial Configuration: 0.2 cm slices were vacuum packaged, surface inoculated and further treated with antimicrobials on the product surfaces Other: Some were irradiated (5 kGy) to destroy background microflora prior to inoculation. The energy was 10 MeV and power concentration was 10 kW, and the average dose rate was 88.3 kGy/min. See paper for more details. | Time: Storage time Concentration: Ovotransferrin plus citric acid Irradiation | Ovotransferrin + 100 mM NaHCO3 did not exhibit any antibacterial activity against 2 pathogens [E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes] in commercial hams, whereas ovotransferrin + 0.5% citric acid suppressed L. monocytogenes in irradiated hams but not in nonirradiated hams. Ovotransferrin plus either sodium bicarbonate or citric acid did not show activity against E. coli O157:H7 on irradiated or nonirradiated hams. |
| Kotula, A. W., Murrell, K. D., Acostastein, L., Lamb, L., and Douglass, L. 1983. Destruction of Trichinella spiralis during cooking. J. Food Sci. 48:765. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Center-cut pork chops | Pork | Trichinella spiralis | Temperature control (Heat treatment by various cooking methods, including convection oven, flat grill, microwave oven, deep-fat frying, and charbroiling) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Freezing time (for one test): 16 hours Temperature: · Final pork internal temperature: 66 to 82°C · Conventional oven temperature: 162°C · Convection oven temperature: 162°C · Flat grill temperature: 204°C · Deep fat fry temperature: 162°C · Freezing temperature: -21°C · See paper for details of cooking methods utilizing microwave ovens Spatial Configuration: 2.5 thick chops Equipment Settings: Microwave oven wattage: 619 W Other: · See paper for details on various cooking conditions | Temperature: Final internal temperature Other: Cooking method | Center cut chops (longissimus dorsi), 2.5 cm in thickness, from 31 pigs experimentally infected with Trichinella spiralis larvae and containing 37 ± 5 larvae per gram were cooked to a final internal temperature of 66, 71, 77 or 82° C by one of eight methods to determine their efficacy in killing encysted larvae. The results indicate that with the time and temperatures used in this study, some rapid methods of cooking pork chops that involved the use of a microwave oven did not completely destroy T. spiralis larvae at 77 or 82° C. The data also showed that cooking pork chops to an internal temperature of 77° C in the conventional oven, convection oven, flat grill, charbroiler or deep fat fryer did inactivate encysted T. spiralis larvae in pork chops. |
| Ku, K. J., Hong, Y. H., and Song, K. B. 2008. Mechanical properties of a Gelidium corneum edible film containing catechin and its application in sausages. J. Food Sci. 73:C217. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | RTE sausages | Not specified | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobial (Edible film made of Gelidium corneum extract, cinnamaldehyde, and catechin) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Conditioning of film solution in water bath: 30 min · Film drying time: 24 hours · Storage time: up to 12 days Temperature: · Temperature of water bath used to condition film solution: 90°C · Film drying temperature: 25°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Film contained 1.5% Gelidium corneum (GC) extract, 0.01% cinnamaldehyde (w/v) and 1.5 g glycerol. · Catechin: 0 to or 100 mg/ mL in film solution Contact Time: Films remained in place during storage Product Coverage: Surface-inoculated sausage slices were packed with the GC film that contained catechin Spatial Configuration: 5-g slices of sausages Other: · Film solutions (100 mL) were cast on 24 x 30 cm Teflon coated glass plates · Sausage slices were decontaminated by treatment with UV light (no further details) for 30 min prior to inoculation | Time: Storage time Concentration: Gelidium corneum extract, cinnamaldehyde, catechin | The populations of the bacteria [E. coli O157:H7] in the sausages packed with the GC film [with cathecin] dropped significantly during the entire storage period in comparison with the control [no film]. In particular, after 5 d of storage, the film packaging decreased the bacteria by 1.81 log CFU/g. In the case of L. monocytogenes, the populations of the bacteria in the control increased on day 2 of storage and decreased until day 12, whereas the sample packed with the GC film [with cathecin] had a continuous decrease in the populations of the bacteria during storage. In particular, the populations of L. monocytogenes in the control increased to 4.19 log CFU/g after 5 d, whereas the populations of L. monocytogenes in the sausages that were packed with the film that contained catechin reached 2.75 log CFU/g, or a 1.44 log CFU/g decrease. In addition, after 12 d of storage, the population of the bacteria in the control was 3.26 log CFU/g, whereas the population of the bacteria in the sausages packed with the GC film was 2.30 log CFU/g. |
| Kudra, L. L., Sebranek, J. G., Dickson, J. S., Larson, E. M., Mendonca, A. F., Prusa, K. J., Cordray, J. C., Jackson-Davis, A., and Lu, Z. 2012. Control of Listeria monocytogenes on frankfurters and cooked pork chops by irradiation combined with modified atmosphere packaging. J. Food Prot. 75:1063. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Frankfurters Cooked pork chops | Beef and pork Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Irradiation Packaging (Modified atmosphere packaging [MAP]) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Time after packaging before irradiation: 12 hours · Storage time: up to 12 weeks Temperature: · Temperature when meat was placed in pouches: 23°C · Temperature for 12 hour storage after packaging prior to irradiation and after irradiation: 4°C · Storage temperature: 4 or 25°C Concentration: · Frankfurters also contained sodium chloride and nitrite · Pork loins were enhanced with sodium chloride, phosphate, and potassium lactate Humidity: when meat was placed in pouches: 0% pH: Frankfurter pH: 5.8 Spatial Configuration: · Frankfurters were packaged 6 links/pouch. Average surface area was 84 cm2 per frankfurter · Pork loins were cut into 1.5 cm chops, then into single slices of 100 g Equipment Settings: · MAP packaging machine was first programmed for a vacuum (10 to 13 mbar) followed by forcing the gas (100% CO2) into the pouch at 680 to 700 bars with simultaneous sealing · Radiation doses were 1 to 2.0 kGy Other: · Frankfurter raw meat blend contained 29% fat · Pouches were high-barrier, Curlon grade 861 · Pouches were immediately sealed after inoculations either under vacuum or by MAP (100% CO2) · Volume ratio of gas to frankfurters within package: 2:1 · Volume ratio of gas to pork chops within package: 4:1 | Pathogen reduction Irradiation Type of product: Frankfurter vs. cooked pork chop Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Time: Storage time Irradiation Packaging Type of product: Frankfurter vs. cooked pork chop | D10 values for L. monocytogenes were higher on frankfurters than on cooked pork chops and were not significantly affected by type of packaging (vacuum vs. MAP) High CO2 MAP was more effective than vacuum packaging for controlling the growth of survivors during refrigerated storage. |
| Lahti, E., Johansson, T., Honkanen-Buzalski, T., Hill, P., and Nurmi, E. 2001. Survival and detection of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 and Listeria monocytogenes during the manufacture of dry sausage using two different starter cultures. Food Microbiology 18:75. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausages | Pork and beef | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes | pH control (Fermentation with different starter cultures) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Initial fermentation and smoking: 15 days · Secondary storage: 34 days Temperature: · Initial fermentation and smoking: 17 to 23°C · Secondary storage: 15 to 17°C · (See paper for detailed schedule) Concentration: In all formulations: · Ascorbic acid: 0.025% · Sodium nitrite: 0.0120% · Sodium chloride: 0.0120% · Glucose: 0.7% Humidity: See paper for detailed schedule of relative humidity during fermentation and drying; all sausage followed the same schedule Water Activity: At end of study period of 49 days: Starter culture A: 0.80 to 0.87 Starter culture B: 0.76 to 0.86 pH: ~5.6 before fermentation, to a low of ~4.5 at day 3. A lower pH was maintained for starter culture B at most time points starting at Day 7. Product Coverage: Sausage batters were inoculated Spatial Configuration: Sausages weighed 600 to 700 g and were stuffed into fibrous casings Other: · The sausage meat was 35% pork, 35% beef, 30% fat · Starter culture A: Staphylococcus xylosus DD-34 with bacteriocins-producing Pediococcus acidilactici PA-2 and Lactobacillus bavaricus MI-401) · Starter culture B: S. carnosus MIII with Lb. curvatus Lb3 · Low (2.3 to 2.6 log CFU/g), medium (3.78 to 4.54 log CFU/g) and high (5.46 to 5.68 log CFU/g) inoculum levels of E. coli were used · Medium (2.92 to 3.35 log CFU/g) or high (5.05 to 5.41 log CFU/g) inoculum levels of L. monocytogenes were tested. | Time: Fermentation and drying time pH: During fermentation and drying Other: Starter culture | Greater reductions of E. coli O157:H7 were seen with starter culture B than with starter culture A at all of the inoculation levels tested, although the pathogen was not eliminated. With a low inoculum level, E coli O157:H7 levels dropped to below 1 log in 21 days with starter culture A and in 14 days with starter culture B. L. monocytogenes decreased more rapidly in the high-inoculum sausages produced with starter A but no significant difference was detected between the starters in the medium-inoculum sausages. L. monocytogenes was eliminated from the medium-inoculum sausages after 49 days |
| Lara-Lledo, M., Olaimat, A., and Holley, R. A. 2012. Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes on bologna sausages by an antimicrobial film containing mustard extract or sinigrin. International Journal of Food Microbiology 156:25. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Bologna | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Glucosinolates, including purified sinigrin, autoclaved oriental or commercial deodorized yellow mustard extracts in a packaging films) Packaging (Active packaging containing glucosinolates) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Storage time: up to 70 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Glucosinolate concentration in films: · Pure sinigrin: 3% · Oriental mustard extract: 5% sinigrin · Yellow mustard extract: 6% sinalbin Water Activity: 0.962 to 0.985 on day 35; 0.954 to 0.979 on day 70 Product Coverage: Film containing sinigrin or mustard extract was applied to the surface of the bologna slices Spatial Configuration: 20 g pieces (8.5 cm diameter and 3 mm thick) were inoculated by dipping Other: Film thickness: 80 mm After films were applied to slices, single covered meat slices were vacuum packaged for storage See papers for details of how the polyvinyl polyethylene glycol graft copolymer was made to incorporate purified sinigrin or oriental or yellow mustard extracts | Time: Storage time Concentration: Oriental and yellow mustard extracts | Mustard glucosinolates in a pure (sinigrin) or extract form (from oriental or yellow mustard) were tested for their ability to inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes when incorporated into a film and applied to the surface of bologna. Glucosinolates found in mustards have to be converted to isothiocyanates in order to have antimicrobial activity. Bacteria, including L. monocytogenes, can promote this conversion. When pure sinigrin, oriental or yellow mustard extracts were incorporated in PPG films containing 3, 5 and 6% (w/w) of the corresponding glucosinolate and used to package bologna inoculated with 4 log CFU/g L. monocytogenes, the pathogen became undetectable in bologna packed with the oriental mustard extract at 52 d storage and remained undetectable at 70 d. The yellow mustard extract was less inhibitory and the pure sinigrin was not antimicrobial. L. monocytogenes numbers reached >7 log CFU/g in the film and untreated controlsat17 d storage. …differences between films suggest that the autoclaved oriental mustard may contain other substances with antimicrobial activity against the pathogen [L. monocytogenes]. |
| Lavieri, N. A., Sebranek, J. G., Brehm-Stecher, B. F., Cordray, J. C., Dickson, J. S., Horsch, A. M., Jung, S., Larson, E. M., Manu, D. K., and Mendonca, A. F. 2014. Investigating the control of Listeria monocytogenes on alternatively-cured frankfurters using natural antimicrobial ingredients or post-lethality interventions. Meat Sci. 97:568. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Alternatively cured frankfurters | Pork and beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Cranberry powder, dried vinegar, and lemon juice/vinegar concentrate in formulation or post-lethality treatment with lauric arginate or octanoic acid) Temperature control (Post-processing thermal treatment in a water bath) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Time between inocoulation and post-lethality treatment: ≤2 hours · HPP dwell time: 4 min · Depressurization time: ≤7 sec · Post-processing thermal treatment: 30 sec · Storage time: up to 98 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 12°C initially · Adiabatic heating during HPP treatment: 4.6°C/100 MPa · Post-processing thermal treatment: 71°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Pre-converted celery powder: 50 mg/kg ingoing natural nitrite in all formulations · Cranberry powder: 1% · Dried vinegar: 1% · Vinegar/lemon juice concentrate: 2.5% · Post-lethality solutions: o Octanoic acid: 376.11 mg/kg (in 1.06 mL) o Lauric arginate: 43.16 mg/kg (in 0.41 mL) Water Activity: 0.9672 to 0.9724 pH: 5.70 to 6.11 Spatial Configuration: · Frankfurters were 1.95 cm in diameter, 7.36 cm in length, with 57.03 cm2 surface area and weighing ~ 23.76 g · Frankfurters were packaged (1 per barrier bag) and vacuum sealed Pressure: 400 or 600 MPa, with a rate of pressurization of 350 MPa/min Other: Frankfurters were 23.89 to 25.39% fat; 54.85 to 56.1% moisture, and 13.29 to 13.42% protein | Pathogen reduction Time: HPP time Concentration: Lauric arginate and octanoic acid Pressure: HPP pressure Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Time: HPP treatment Storage time Concentration: Dried vinegar, vinegar/lemon juice concentrate Pressure: HPP pressure | Lauric arginate, octanoic acid, and high hydrostatic pressure (400 MPa) reduced L. monocytogenes populations by 2.28, 2.03, and 1.88 log10 CFU/g compared to the control. L. monocytogenes grew in all post-lethality intervention treatments, except after a 600 MPa high hydrostatic pressure treatment for 4 min. Cranberry powder did not inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes, while a dried vinegar and a vinegar/lemon juice concentrate did. |
| Lavieri, N. A., Sebranek, J. G., Brehm-Stecher, B. F., Cordray, J. C., Dickson, J. S., Horsch, A. M., Jung, S., Larson, E. M., Manu, D. K., and Mendonca, A. F. 2014. Investigating the control of Listeria monocytogenes on a ready-to-eat ham product using natural antimicrobial ingredients and postlethality interventions. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 11:462. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Alternatively cured, RTE ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Cranberry powder, dried vinegar, and lemon juice/vinegar concentrate in formulation or post-lethality treatment with lauric arginate or octanoic acid) Temperature control (Post-packaging thermal treatment in a water bath) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Time between inoculation and post-lethality treatment: ≤2 hours · HPP dwell time: 4 min · Depressurization time: ≤7 sec · Post-processing thermal treatment: 30 sec · Storage time: up to 98 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 12°C initially · Adiabatic heating during HPP treatment: 4.6°C/100 MPa · Post-processing thermal treatment: 71°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Pre-converted celery powder: 50 mg/kg ingoing natural nitrite in all formulations · Cranberry powder: 1% · Dried vinegar: 1% · Vinegar/lemon juice concentrate: 2.5% · Post-lethality solutions: o 23.4% Octanoic acid: (0.0186 mL/cm2 ham slice) o 2.5% Lauric arginate: (0.007192 mL/cm2 ham slice) Water Activity: 0.9693 to 0.9745 pH: 5.85 to 6.14 Spatial Configuration: · Restructured hams were stuffed into 50 mm diameter impermeable casings and sliced into 12 mm thick slices · Ham slices were packaged (1 per barrier bag) and vacuum sealed Pressure: 400 or 600 MPa, with a rate of pressurization of 350 MPa/min Other: Ham was 1.85 to 2.04% fat; 75.49 to 76.29% moisture, and 17.85 to 18.20% protein | Pathogen reduction Time: HPP time Concentration: Lauric arginate and octanoic acid Pressure: HPP pressure Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Time: HPP treatment Storage time Concentration: Dried vinegar, vinegar/lemon juice concentrate Pressure: HPP pressure | Of the post-lethality treatments, lauric arginate, HPP at 400 MPa, and octanoic acid reduced L. monocytogenes levels by 2.38, 2.21, and 1.73 log CFU/g, respectively, relative to the control. In contrast, post-packaging thermal treatment did not significantly reduce L. monocytogenes levels. Following the post-lethality treatments, L. monocytogenes eventually grew in all interventions except HPP at 600 MPa. Dried vinegar and a lemon juice/vinegar concentrate (but not cranberry powder) in the formulation were able to inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes during storage. |
| Lavieri, N. A., Sebranek, J. G., Cordray, J. C., Dickson, J. S., Horsch, A. M., Jung, S., Manu, D. K., Brehm-Stecher, B. F., and Mendonca, A. F. 2014. Effects of different nitrite concentrations from a vegetable source with and without high hydrostatic pressure on the recovery of Listeria monocytogenes on ready-to-eat restructured ham. J. Food Prot. 77:781. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat restructured ham cured with nitrite from a natural souce | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Nitrite from preconverted celery powder) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Time after inoculation before HPP treatment: ≤2 hours · HPP time: 1 to 4 min · Depressurization time: 7 sec · Storage time: up to 98 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 12°C (initial temperature) · Adiabatic heating during HPP: 4.6°C/100 MPa · Temperature after packaging and during storage: 4°C Concentration: Pre-converted celery powder to provide 1, 50, or 100 mg/kg nitrite in the formulated hams Water Activity: 0.9604 to 0.9672 pH: 6.06 to 6.18 Product Coverage: Nitrite was in product formulation Spatial Configuration: 12 mm thick slices of ham, approximately 50 mm in diameter (weight about 24.5 to 25.3 g), packaged in barrier bags, and inoculated with 0.2 mL of a inoculum before vacuum sealing Pressure: · HPP pressure: 400 or 600 MPa · Average rate of pressurization: 350 MPa/min Other: · Fat: 1.64 to 1.73% · Moisture: 76.06 to 76.30% · Protein: 18.71 to 19.00% · Residual nitrite: 0.478 to 83.13 mg/kg | Pathogen reduction Time: HPP time Storage time Pressure: HPP pressure Concentration: Nitrite (from preconverted celery powder) Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Time: HPP time Storage time Pressure: HPP pressure Concentration: Nitrite (from preconverted celery powder) | The HHP treatment at 600 MPa for 4 min resulted in L. monocytogenes populations below the detection limit of our sampling protocols throughout the storage period regardless of the natural nitrite concentration. The combination of HHP at 400 MPa for 4 min or 600 MPa for 1 min with natural nitrite resulted in initial inhibition of viable L. monocytogenes. Ham formulations that did not contain natural nitrite allowed faster growth of L. monocytogenes than did those with nitrite, regardless of whether they were treated with HHP. The results indicate that nitrite from a vegetable source at the concentrations used in this study resulted in slower growth of this microorganism. HHP treatments enhanced the inhibitory effects of natural nitrite on L. monocytogenes growth. Thus, the combination of natural nitrite plus HHP appears to have a synergistic inhibitory effect on L. monocytogenes growth. HPP treatments of 600 MPa for 4 min appeared to be bacteriocidal for L. monocytogenes under conditions of this study, while treatments of 600 MPa for 1 min or 400 MPa for 4 min showed eventual regrowth of L. monocytogenes. |
| Lavieri, N. A., Sebranek, J. G., Cordray, J. C., Dickson, J. S., Horsch, A. M., Jung, S., Manu, D. K., Mendonca, A. F., and Stecher, B. B. 2015. Control of Listeria monocytogenes on alternatively cured ready-to-eat ham using natural antimicrobial ingredients in combination with post-lethality interventions. J. Food Proc. Technol. 6:493. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Alternatively cured RTE ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Cranberry powder [90MX], dried vinegar [DV], and lemon juice/vinegar concentrate [LV1X] in formulation or post-lethality treatment with lauric arginate or octanoic acid) Temperature control (Post-packaging thermal treatment in a water bath) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · HPP time: 4 min · Depressurization time: 7 sec · Post-packaging thermal treatment (PPTT): 30 sec in water bath · Post-lethality interventions · Storage time: up to 98 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 12°C (initial temperature) · Adiabatic heating during HPP: 4.6°C/100 MPa · Post-packaging lethality treatment: 71°C water bath · Temperature after packaging and during storage: 4°C Concentration: · Formulation ingredients: o Pre-converted celery powder to provide 50 mg/kg nitrite in all hams o Cranberry powder (90MX]: 1% o Dried vinegar [DV]: 1% o Vinegar/lemon juice concentrate [LV1X: 2.5% · Post-lethality solutions: o 23.4% Octanoic acid (OA): (0.0186 mL/cm2 ham slice) o 2.5% Lauric arginate (LAE): (0.00719 mL/cm2 ham slice) Water Activity: 0.9759 to 0.9819 pH: 6.05 to 6.35 Product Coverage: · Nitrite, 90MX, DV, and LV1 X were in product formulation; · OA and LAE were applied to the surface after inoculation Spatial Configuration: · Ham slices were ~4.72 cm in diameter and 1.31 cm in height, with a surface area of about 54.51 cm2 and a height of about 24.57 g · Slices were packaged in barrier bags, and inoculated with 0.2 mL of a inoculum before vacuum sealing Pressure: · HPP pressure: 400 MPa · Average rate of pressurization: 350 MPa/min Other: · Fat: 1.58 to 2.32% · Moisture: 74.93 to 75.82% · Protein: 17.88 to 18.09% · Residual nitrite: 31.32 to 36.01 mg/kg | Pathogen reduction Time: HPP time Storage time Pressure: HPP pressure Concentration: LV1X, DV, OA, LAE Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Time: HPP time Storage time Pressure: HPP pressure Concentration: LV1X, DV, OA, LAE | Combinations of antimicrobials in the ham formulation (90MX, DV, or LV1X) and post-lethality treatments (HPP, PPTT, or surface application of OA or LAE) were tested for L. monocytogenes control on naturally cured ham slices during refrigerated storage. HPP in combination with 90MX, DV, or LV1X in the ham formulation resulted in an initial ~2 log reduction in L. monocytogenes levels. This reduction was maintained throughout 98 days of storage for HPP plus DV or HPP plus LV1X, but HPP plus 90MX allowed growth beginning around day 70. PPTT in combination with 90MX, DV, or LV1X did not cause significant initial decreased in L. monocytogenes levels, but PTT plus LV1X did not allow subsequent growth through 98 days of storage. LAE or OA plus any of the antimicrobials resulted in an initial >2 log decrease in L. monocytogenes numbers, which was maintained for LV1X and DV but not 90MX. The use of natural antimicrobial ingredients such as DV and LV1X in combination with post-lethality interventions such as HHP, LAE, and OA represents an effective multi-hurdle approach that could be instituted by manufacturers of organic and natural processed meat and poultry products for L. monocytogenes control. |
| Lawlor, K. A., Pierson, M. D., Hackney, C. R., Claus, J. R., and Marcy, J. E. 2000. Nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum toxigenesis in cooked turkey stored under modified atmospheres. Journal of Food Protection 63:1511. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Boneless, cooked, uncured turkey breast | Turkey | Clostridium botulinum (Nonproteolytic) | Temperature control (Refrigeration) Packaging (Modified atmosphere packaging: 100% N2 and 30% CO2:70%N2)) | Prevention of toxin production | Time: Storage time: up to 60 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4, 10, and 15°C Water Activity: Initial water activity of product: 0.951 pH: Initial product pH: 6.20 Spatial Configuration: Small chunks of meat (1.9 x 1.3 x 1.3 cm to 3.8 x 1.9 x 1.3 cm), packaged in 25 g aliquots into 22.5 cm x 15.5 cm high-barrier bags and inoculated in the pouches Other: Product used in study was 15.2% protein, 79.4% moisture, 0.8% fat, 1.8% salt, and 0.4% phosphate Inoculated samples were packaged in O2-impermeable bags under two modified atmospheres (100% N2 and 30% CO2:70% N2). | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Other: Modified atmosphere packaging composition | Given sufficient incubation time, nonproteolytic C. botulinum type B grew and produced toxin in all temperature and modified atmosphere treatment combinations. At moderate temperature abuse (15°C), toxin was detected by day 7, independent of packaging atmosphere. At mild temperature abuse (10°C), toxin was detected by day 14, also independent of packaging atmosphere. At refrigeration temperature (4°C), toxin was detected by day 14 in product packaged under 100% N2 and by day 28 in product packaged under 30% CO2:70% N2. Reduced storage temperature significantly delayed toxin production and extended the period of sensory acceptability of cooked turkey, but even strict refrigeration did not prevent growth and toxigenesis by nonproteolytic C. botulinum. The results of this study demonstrate that MAP and refrigerated storage are not sufficient barriers to prevent nonproteolytic C. botulinum growth and toxigenesis in ready-to-eat poultry products formulated without intrinsic antibotulinal safety factors. Aroma and visual appearance cannot be relied upon to provide consumer protection, because sensory unacceptability does not always coincide with toxigenesis. |
| Lianou, A., Geornaras, I., Kendall, P. A., Belk, K. E., Scanga, J. A., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2007. Fate of Listeria monocytogenes in commercial ham, formulated with or without antimicrobials, under conditions simulating contamination in the processing or retail environment and during home storage. J. Food Prot. 70:378. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Commercial cured ham (formulated with or without lactate and diacetate) | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (potassium lactate and sodium diacetate) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Initial (retail) storage time: 0 to 60 days · Temperature abuse period: 90 min · Second (home) storage time: 7 days Temperature: · Initial (retail) storage temperature: 4°C · Temperature abuse temperature: 25°C · Second (home) storage temperature: 7°C Concentration: · Hams were formulated with salt, phosphates, erythorbate, and sodium nitrite · Potassium lactate · Sodium diacetate Water Activity: Initial: 0.957 to 0.968 (did not change during storage in vacuum packages) pH: · Initial pH: 6.21 to 6.28 · After 60 days of vacuum-packaged storage: 5.91 to 6.23 Spatial Configuration: Ham slices were ~3 mm thick and were cut into 5 x 5 cm pieces; both sides were inoculated Other: · Initial storage period was in vacuum packaging; second storage period was under aerobic conditions. · Ham slices were inoculated prior to initial storage or after initial storage period to simulate retail contamination. Prior to second storage period, bags were opened and reclosed with rubber bands for aerobic storage. · Ham fat content: 3.2 to 3.4% · Moisture content: 72.6 to 73.9% | Time: Storage time (both storage periods) Temperature: Storage temperature (both storage periods) Concentration: Lactate and diacetate (present during both incubations) Other: Timing of contamination | Ham slices, formulated with or w/o lactate and diacetate, were subjected to two serial storages to mimic retail storage followed by a brief temperature abuse period followed by home/consumer storage. The hams were inoculated either before or after the first storage periods to mimic contamination during processing or at retail. L. monocytogenes populations were lower during storage in ham formulated with lactate-diacetate than in product without antimicrobials under both contamination scenarios. Inoculation of ham without lactate-diacetate allowed prolific growth of L. monocytogenes in vacuum packages during the first shelf life and was the worst case contamination scenario with respect to pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers encountered during home storage. Under the second shelf life contamination scenario, mean growth rates of the organism during home storage ranged from 0.32 to 0.45 and from 0.18 to 0.25 log CFU/cm2/day for ham without and with lactate-diacetate, respectively, and significant increases in pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers were generally observed after 4 and 8 days of storage, respectively. Regardless of contamination scenario, 12-day home storage of product without lactate-diacetate resulted in similar pathogen [L. monocytogenes] populations (6.0 to 6.9 log CFU/cm2). In ham containing lactate-diacetate, similar counts were found during the home storage experiment under both contamination scenarios, and only in 60-day-old product did samples from the first shelf life have higher pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers than those found in samples from the second shelf life. |
| Lianou, A., Geornaras, I., Kendall, P. A., Scanga, J. A., and Sofos, J. N. 2007. Behavior of Listeria monocytogenes at 7 degrees C in commercial turkey breast, with or without antimicrobials, after simulated contamination for manufacturing, retail and consumer settings. Food Microbiol. 24:433. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Uncured turkey breast (formulated with or without lactate and diacetate) | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (potassium lactate and sodium diacetate) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Initial (retail) storage time: 0 to 50 days · Temperature abuse period: 90 min · Second (home) storage time: 7 days Temperature: · Initial (retail) storage temperature: 4°C · Temperature abuse temperature: 25°C · Second (home) storage temperature: 7°C Concentration: · All turkey breasts contained salt, and phosphates · Potassium lactate: 1.5% · Sodium diacetate: 0.05% Water Activity: Initial: 0.969 to 0.974 (did not change during storage in vacuum packages) pH: · Initial pH: 6.18 to 6.26 · After 60 days of vacuum-packaged storage: 5.76 (sliced) Spatial Configuration: Turkey slices were ~3 mm thick and were cut into 5 x 5 cm pieces; both sides were inoculated Other: · Initial storage period was in vacuum packaging; second storage period was under aerobic conditions. · Turkey slices were inoculated prior to initial storage or after initial storage period to simulate retail contamination. Prior to second storage period, bags were opened and reclosed with rubber bands for aerobic storage. · Fat content: 0.9 to 1.0% · Moisture content: 76.2 to 76.8% | Time: Storage time (both storage periods) Temperature: Storage temperature (both storage periods) Concentration: Lactate and diacetate (present during both incubations) Other: Timing of contamination | The behavior of L. monocytogenes in uncured turkey breast during simulated home storage (aerobic storage at 7 °C) depended on contamination scenario and presence of antimicrobials in the formulation of the product. Plant-contamination (contamination soon after processing) of product without antimicrobials and retail/home-contamination of product containing potassium lactate–sodium diacetate were determined to be the worst and best case scenario, respectively, relative to pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels encountered during subsequent aerobic storage of the product at 7 °C. L. monocytogenes populations were lower in product containing potassium lactate–sodium diacetate compared to product without antimicrobials, under both contamination scenarios. Moreover, the results of this study indicated that avoidance of extended shelf life and home storage may reduce considerably the risk of consumer exposure to high levels of the pathogen. |
| Lindstrom, M., Mokkila, M., Skytta, E., Hyytia-Trees, E., Lahteenmaki, L., Hielm, S., Ahvenainen, R., and Korkeala, H. 2001. Inhibition of growth of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum type B in sous vide cooked meat products is achieved by using thermal processing but not nisin. J. Food Prot. 64:838. | NFC/NSS | Sous vide processed ground beef and pork cubes | Beef Pork | Clostridium botulinum (Nonproteolytic) | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Nisin) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Heat treatment time: o Pasteurization value of mild heat treatment: P (z value of 7.0 and reference temperature was 85.0°C) was 0 to 2 min o Pasteurization value of increased heat treatment: P (z value of 7.0 and reference temperature was 85.0°C) was 67 to 515 min · Cooling time: 1 hour · Storage time: up to 28 days Temperature: · Core temperature maximum during heating: o Ground beef: 62.3 or 88.3°C o Pork cubes: 74.7 or 89.9°C · Cooling water temperature: 5°C · Final cooling temperature: 2°C · Storage temperature: 4 or 8°C Concentration: Nisin: 250 or 500 IU/g added prior to inoculation pH: · Ground beef: 6.0 · Pork cubes: 6.2 Contact Time: Nisin was added after inoculation prior to thermal processing Spatial Configuration: · Pork cubes were 2 cm3 · Each sous vide sample was 1.5 kg | Time: · Heat treatment time (pasteurization value) Temperature: · Heat treatment temperature · Storage temperature | Mild sous vide treatments are not sufficient to eliminate nonproteolytic C. botulinum spores in meat products. After the mild heat treatment, C. botulinum was detected in all samples of both products, and all ground beef samples stored at 8°C were toxic. After increased heat processing, none of the samples were toxic, although one ground beef sample contained C. botulinum. Nisin did not inhibit the growth of C. botulinum in either product. |
| Lobaton-Sulabo, A. S. S., Axman, T. J., Getty, K. J. K., Boyle, E. A. E., Harper, N. M., Uppal, K. K., Barry, B., and Higgins, J. J. 2011. Package systems and storage times serve as postlethality controls for Listeria monocytogenes on whole-muscle beef jerky and pork and beef smoked sausage sticks. J. Food Prot. 74:188. | HT/SS | Whole-muscle beef jerky Smoked pork and beef sausage sticks | Beef Pork and beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Packaging (Heat sealed [HS] w/o vacuum, HS with oxygen scavenger, nitrogen flushed with oxygen scavenger [NFOS], and vacuum) Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Storage time: 0 to 30 days Temperature: · Storage temperature: 25.5°C Concentration: · Nitrite was present in unspecified amounts in both products · Sausage sticks also contained nitrate and had been treated with sorbate at unspecified levels · Jerky contained sodium erythorbate at unspecified levels Water Activity: · Jerky: 0.78-0.79 · Sausage sticks: 0.80 (after inoculation) pH: · Jerky: 5.4 · Sausage sticks: 4.99 to 5.10 Spatial Configuration: · Jerky: 4 x 4 cm pieces · Sausage sticks: 14 cm x 1.0 cm diameter Other: · Jerky contained 2.1% fat, 28.1% moisture, 39.6% protein, moisture to protein ratio of 0.71, and 4.8% salt Information on sausage sticks proximate composition was not provided. | Packaging Storage/holding time | The interaction of packaging and storage time affected L. monocytogenes reduction on jerky, but not on sausage sticks. A >2-log CFU/cm2 reduction was achieved on sausage sticks after 24 h of storage, regardless of package type, while jerky had <2-log reductions for all packaging types…Processors could package beef jerky in HS packages with oxygen scavenger or vacuum in conjunction with a 24-h holding time as an antimicrobial process to ensure a >1-log CFU/cm2 L. monocytogenes reduction or use a 48-h holding time for HS- or NFOS-packaged beef jerky. A >3-log CFU/cm2 mean reduction was observed for all beef jerky and sausage stick packaging systems after 30 days of 25.5°C storage. Processors could also use a 24-h holding period for all packaging systems to achieve >2-log CFU/cm2 L. monocytogenes reductions as a postlethality treatment for smoked sausage sticks. |
| Luchansky JB, Campano SG, Shoyer BA, Porto-Fett ACS (2016) Viability of Listeria monocytogenes on Boneless, Water-Added Hams, Commercially Prepared with and without Food-Grade Chemicals, during Extended Storage at 4 and/or-2.2 degrees C. J Food Prot 79 (4):613-619. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Boneless, water-added, ham slices | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (refrigeration, freezing) Antimicrobials (in formulation [potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate, buffered vinegar, buffered vinegar plus potassium lactate, or a blend of potassium lactate, potassium acetate and sodium diacetate], on surface [lauric arginate ester]) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Refrigerated storage: up to 120 days for first storage period · Frozen storage: 90 days followed by 120 days at 4°C Temperature: · Refrigerated storage: 4°C · Frozen storage: -2.2°C Concentration: In formulations: · All hams contained 200 ppm ingoing nitrite by formulation, with ~10 to 30 ppm nitrite left after cooking · Additional ingredients in formulations included the following: o Potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate (PL+SD): 1.6% o Buffered vinegar (BV): 2.2% o Buffered vinegar and potassium lactate (BV+PL): 1.7% o Potassium lactate, potassium acetate, and sodium diacetate (PL+PA+SD): 1.7% On surface: 44 ppm lauric arginate ester (LAE) pH: ~6.0 Contact Time: in formulation except LAE, which was applied to surface and left in place during storage Product Coverage: LAE was sprayed into product packages prior to vacuum sealing Spatial Configuration: Sliced ~0.7 cm thick, 13 cm in diameter, ~100 g Other: Ham moisture level: 72.35% Ham protein fat free target: 17.0 Ham salt concentration: 2.35% Ham was vacuum sealed to 950 mbar for storage | Time: Storage time at -2.2°C and at 4°C Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: (of antimicrobial in formulation): · 1.6% potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate · 2.2% buffered vinegar · 1.7% buffered vinegar and potassium lactate · 1.7% potassium lactate, potassium acetate, and sodium diacetate | (This row represents Phase I of this study; Phase II is in a separate row). All of the antimicrobials added to the formulation reduced or eliminated L. monocytogenes growth during storage at 4°C over 120 days, although BV, BV+PL, or PL+PA+SD were more effective than PL+SD. Frozen storage for 90 days was listericidal, resulting in a decrease in L. monocytogenes by <1 log CFU/slice regardless of the formulation. Following 120 days storage at 4°C, the presence of all of the antimicrobials resulted in L. monocytogenes reductions by ~1.4 to 1.8 log CFU/slice. Surface treatment with LAE on slices alone was much less effective than formulation with antimicrobials and did not greatly affect listerial growth or listericidal activity when used together with formulation antimicrobials. |
| Luchansky JB, Campano SG, Shoyer BA, Porto-Fett ACS (2016) Viability of Listeria monocytogenes on Boneless, Water-Added Hams, Commercially Prepared with and without Food-Grade Chemicals, during Extended Storage at 4 and/or-2.2 degrees C. J Food Prot 79 (4):613-619. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Boneless, water-added, casing-cooked ham slices | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (refrigeration, freezing) Antimicrobials (in formulation [potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate, buffered vinegar, buffered vinegar plus potassium lactate, or a blend of potassium lactate, potassium acetate and sodium diacetate], on surface [lauric arginate ester]) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Storage for 6 months at -2.2°C Temperature: · Storage at -2.2°C Concentration: In formulations: · All hams contained 200 ppm ingoing nitrite by formulation, with ~10 to 30 ppm nitrite left after cooking · Additional ingredients in formulations included the following: o Potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate (PL+SD): 1.6% o Buffered vinegar (BV): 2.2% o Buffered vinegar and potassium lactate (BV+PL): 1.7% o Potassium lactate, potassium acetate, and sodium diacetate (PL+PA+SD): 1.7% On surface: 44 ppm lauric arginate ester (LAE) pH: ~6.0 Contact Time: in formulation except LAE, which was applied to surface and left in place during storage Product Coverage: LAE was sprayed into product packages prior to vacuum sealing Spatial Configuration: Whole 1 kg hams Other: Ham moisture level: 72.35% Ham protein fat free target: 17.0 Ham salt concentration: 2.35% Ham was vacuum sealed to 950 mbar for storage | Time: Storage time at -2.2°C Temperature: Storage temperature of -2.2°C Concentration: (of antimicrobial in formulation): · 1.6% potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate · 2.2% buffered vinegar · 1.7% buffered vinegar and potassium lactate · 1.7% potassium lactate, potassium acetate, and sodium diacetate | (This row represents Phase II of this study; Phase I is in a separate row). L. monocytogenes decreased by ~ 2.0 to 3.5 log CFU per ham (w/o LAE treatment) and by ~ 4.2 to 5.2 log CFU per ham (with LAE treatment) when product was held at -2.2°C. In general, deep chilling hams was listericidal, and inclusion of antimicrobials in the formulation suppressed outgrowth of L. monocytogenes during extended cold storage. |
| Luchansky, J. B., Call, J. E., Hristova, B., Rumery, L., Yoder, L., and Oser, A. 2005. Viability of Listeria monocytogenes on commercially-prepared hams surface treated with acidic calcium sulfate and lauric arginate and stored at 4 degrees C. Meat Sci. 71:92. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | ~3 lb. ready-to-eat ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Acidic calcium sulfate [ACS] and lauric arginate [LAE]) | Pathogen reduction (post-process lethality) Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Storage time: 24 hours and up to 60 days Temperature: · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · ACS (calcium sulfate plus lactic acid): 2 to 8 mL of a 1:1 or 1:2 solution of ACS in water added to shrink-wrap bags · LAE: 2 to 8 mL of a 5% or 10% solution · (all hams had sodium chloride in their formulation; proximate analysis averaged 2.28 g/100g) Water Activity: pH: Hams without antimicrobials: 6.1 to 6.2 Product Coverage: · L. monocytogenes was surface inoculated. · Antimicrobials were added to bags prior to addition of hams to permit surface coverage Spatial Configuration: 3 lb. hams Other: Moisture of hams w/o antimicrobials: 71.7 to 74.5% Fat content: average of 2.9 g/100g | Time: Storage time (for LAE) Concentration: ACS or LAE levels | This study tested Sprayed Lethality in Container (the addition of antimicrobials to the shrink-wrap bags just prior to adding the ham and sealing the package) for reducing L. monocytogenes levels and maintaining levels during 60 days of storage at 4°C. Both ACS and LAE were able to reduce L. monocytogenes levels within 24 hours. For short term storage (24 hours), LAE reduced greater numbers of L. monocytogenes per ham than did ACS. However, during longer (60 day) storage, some L. monocytogenes grew back in samples with low levels of LAE after 28 days (but not with ACS or higher levels of LAE). |
| Lungu, B., and Johnson, M. G. 2005. Fate of Listeria monocytogenes inoculated onto the surface of model turkey frankfurter pieces treated with zein coatings containing nisin, sodium diacetate, and sodium lactate at 4 degrees C. J. Food Prot. 68:855. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Full-fat turkey frankfurters | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Edible zein coatings [made with ethanol glycerol or propylene glycol] containing nisin, sodium diacetate, and sodium lactate) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Inoculation dipping time: ≥ 1 min Drying time after inoculation: 30 min Dipping time in coating/antimicrobial solutions: 1 min Drying time after coating: 1 hour Storage time: up to 28 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: (See paper for details on zein formulations) In zein coating dip: Nisin: 0.01 g/mL or 640 AU/mL Sodium diacetate: 6% Sodium lactate: 6% pH: Frankfurters: 6.25 Coating solution pH values ranged from 3.1 to 6.81 Product Coverage: On surface Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters were cut into pieces weighing about 1 g each Other: Frankfurters were 21% fat After inoculation and dipping, frankfurter pieces were packed separately into Whirl-Pak plastic bags | Time: Storage time Antimicrobials: Nisin and sodium diacetate, especially when formulated in a zein coating. Ethanol glycerol and propylene glycol alone | This study tested the effects of various antimicrobials, applied alone or in zein coatings to the surface of frankfurters, at reducing L. monocytogenes during storage at 4°C for 4 weeks. The zein coatings (made with either ethanol/glycerol or propylene glycol as solvents) together with nisin and sodium diacetate (with or without lactate) resulted in no detectable L. monocytogenes cells after 28 days of storage. The number of cells decreased over the course of the storage period. Other coatings also showed efficacy but did not completely eliminate L. monocytogenes. Nisin or sodium diacetate alone (or together) were effective at reducing L. monocytogenes levels on frankfurters. Surprisingly, sodium lactate alone at the high concentration used here (6%) led to an increase in L. monocytogenes numbers over 28 days of storage. The solvents used to prepare the zein coatings (ethanol glycerol and propylene glycol) along showed antimicrobial activity against L. monocytogenes. |
| Lungu, B., and Johnson, M. G. 2005. Potassium sorbate does not increase control of Listeria monocytogenes when added to zein coatings with nisin on the surface of full fat turkey frankfurter pieces in a model system at 4 degrees C. J. Food Sci. 70:M95. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Full-fat turkey frankfurters | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Edible zein coatings [made with ethanol glycerol or propylene glycol] containing nisin or potassium sorbate) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Inoculation dipping time: ≥ 1 min Drying time after inoculation: 30 min Dipping time in coating/antimicrobial solutions: 1 min Drying time after coating: 1 hour Storage time: up to 28 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: (See paper for details on zein formulations) In zein coating dip: Nisin: 1280 AU/mL Potassium sorbate: 0.4% Product Coverage: On surface Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters were cut into pieces weighing about 1 g each Other: Frankfurters were 21% fat After inoculation and dipping, frankfurter pieces were packed separately into Whirl-Pak plastic bags | Time: Storage time Antimicrobials: · Nisin · Ethanol glycerol and propylene glycol alone | Over 28 d, the nisin‐alone treatment counts were lower than the control by 6.1 logs for the high inoculum. No cells were detected for the low inoculum test by day 21. The solvent controls (ethanol‐glycerol or propylene glycol), yielded mean counts similar to those for zein‐ethanol‐glycerol or zein‐propylene‐glycol, giving 4 to 5 log lower counts versus the untreated controls at 28 d. Therefore zein per se had no antimicrobial activity. Use of 0.4% potassium sorbate did not significantly inhibit growth compared with the control or solvent‐only controls. No significantly lower counts of L. monocytogenes were observed for zein‐nisin coating treatments with sorbate versus without sorbate. Therefore, treatments using nisin alone or in combination with zein, ethanol‐glycerol, or propylene glycol if approved for use on ready‐to‐eat foods, show promise for use as barriers against the growth of re-contaminating L. monocytogenes cells on this food substrate at 4°C. Addition of either zein or potassium sorbate did not increase the antimicrobial activity of nisin. |
| Madril, M. T., and Sofos, J. N. 1986. INTERACTION OF REDUCED NACL, SODIUM ACID PYROPHOSPHATE AND PH ON THE ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF COMMINUTED MEAT-PRODUCTS. J. Food Sci. 51:1147. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked comminuted beef and pork batter | Beef and pork | Clostridium sporogenes spores | Antimicrobials (Sodium chloride, sodium acid pyrophosphate) pH control | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Thermal processing time: until 70°C was reached Storage time: Up to 35 days Temperature: Internal temperature at end of cooking: 70°C Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: (All batters contained 0.01% sodium nitrite and 0.03% sodium erythorbate) Salt brine: 2.3 or 4.1% Sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP): 0.5% pH: Cooked meat had pH values of 5.7, 6.0, and 6.3 initially Spatial Configuration: Meat batter was extruded into 35 cans; inoculation occurred before cans were sealed and thermally processed Other: Meat batter contained 35.5% fresh beef and 45.5 pork trimmings | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Salt Sodium acid pyrophosphate pH | This study tested whether the reduced antimicrobial efficacy of a reduced sodium chloride formulation could be compensated for by the addition of sodium acid pyrophosphate. Microbial growth was delayed and the short shelf-life of low brine (2.3%) products was extended with SAPP in the formulation. The antimicrobial properties of treatments with SAPP were due to both declining pH and presence of phosphate in the formulation. |
| Marcos, B., Aymerich, T., and Garriga, M. 2005. Evaluation of high pressure processing as an additional hurdle to control Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica in low-acid fermented sausages. J. Food Sci. 70:M339. | NHT/SS | Low-acid fermented sausages (fuet and chorizo) | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: · HPP time: 10 min · Pressure come-up time: 9 min · Pressure release time: 1.5 min · Ripening/drying time: 27 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 17°C · Ripening/drying temperature: 12°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 20 g/kg · Potassium nitrate: 0.1 g/kg · Sodium nitrite: 0.1 g/kg · Sodium ascorbate: 0.5 g/kg Humidity: During drying: 80% RH Water Activity: 0.98 initially to 0.83-0.86 during drying pH: · Initial pH of chorizo and fuet: 5.7-5.8 · Minimum pH during chorizo ripening: 5.17 at day 6 · Minimum pH during fuet ripening: 5.32 at day 6 · Minimum pH at end of chorizo ripening: 5.32 · Minimum pH at end of fuet ripening: 5.47 Product Coverage: Batters were inoculated with pathogens prior to stuffing and were treated with HPP one day after stuffing Spatial Configuration: Sausage was in casings within vacuum packaged polyamide/polyethylene bags when HPP treatment was performed Pressure: 300 MPa Equipment Settings: HPP machine had a 320 L volume and 280 mm diameter chamber Other: · Sausage was made with 50% lean pork meat and 50% pork back fat · Collagen casings were used | Time: · HPP time (for Salmonella) · Ripening/drying time Pressure: HPP pressure (for Salmonella only) | The use of HPP on raw sausages prior to drying was tested to see how well this could control Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella present in the sausage batter. Lactic acid bacteria were reduced 3-4 log/g immediately after HPP, but the bacteria recovered during the drying period. HPP treatment reduced the levels of Salmonella (relative to no-HPP controls) in both sausages during and at the end of ripening. The ripening process at 12°C and 80% RH for 27 d was effective in preventing the growth of Salmonella and L. monocytogenes. Pressure treatment of raw sausages at 300 MPa (10 min, 17 °C) was an additional hurdle to Salmonella control. However, HPP before ripening had a negative effect on L. monocytogenes control as a con-sequence of LAB inactivation. Pressurization at 300 MPa before ripening is not commercially viable because it alters the visual aspect of sausages significantly. |
| Martin EM, Griffis CL, Vaughn KLS, O'Bryan CA, Friedly EC, Marcy JA, Ricke SC, Crandall PG, Lary RY (2009) Control of Listeria monocytogenes by lauric arginate on frankfurters formulated with or without lactate/diacetate. Journal of Food Science 74 (6):M237-M241. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Chicken pork, and beef frankfurters | Beef, pork, and chicken mixture | L. monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Lactate/diacetate in formulation and lauric arginate as a post-lethality application to packages) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time up to 156 days Temperature: Storage temperature averaged 6°C (range of 1 to 10°C) Concentration: · Lauric arginate (LAE) at 22 to 33 ppm per package · Potassium lactate: 0 to 2.1% in formulation · Sodium diacetate: 0.15% in formulation · Frankfurter formulation contained 2% salt, 0.3% phosphate, and 0.039% nitrite Product Coverage: LAE was completely dispersed on the surface of the product; lactate/diacetate was in formulation Spatial Configuration: LAE was added (after inoculation ) to 1 lb. frankfurter packages containing 8 frankfurters Other: Frankfurters were vacuum sealed during storage | Time: Storage time Concentration: Concentration of LAE used in surface treatment and concentration of potassium lactate/sodium diacetate used in formulation | Surface treatment of frankfurters with lauric arginate at 22 ppm provided a >1 log reduction in Lm (inoculated on the surface) within 12 hours of storage at ~6°C. The same surface treatment also kept Lm growth to less than 2 logs over extended storage times (24 hrs to 156 days) at ~6°C. Lactate plus diacetate alone did not immediately reduce Lm levels, but did keep Lm growth to less than 2 logs during refrigerated storage for up to 156 days. Combining surface application of LAE with lactate plus diacetate in the formulation resulted in an initial reduction of Lm by 1-2 logs and suppressed Lm growth significantly more than did lactate plus diacetate alone. |
| Martin EM, O'Bryan CA, Lary RY, Jr., Griffis CL, Vaughn KLS, Marcy JA, Ricke SC, Crandall PG (2010) Spray application of liquid smoke to reduce or eliminate Listeria monocytogenes surface inoculated on frankfurters. Meat Sci 85 (4):640-644. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Chicken pork, and beef frankfurters formulated without lactate/diacetate | Beef, pork, and chicken mixture | L. monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Liquid smoke) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Spray time was calibrated to deliver 1.5 mL of liquid smoke · Storage time: up to 140 days Temperature: 4°C storage temp. Concentration: Frankfurter formulation contained 2.35% salt, 0.32% phosphate, and 0.039% nitrite pH: Liquid smoke pH was 4.25-4.85 Product Coverage · In post-process contamination study and shelf-life parts of the study, frankfurters were individually sprayed with full-strength liquid smoke · Two-stage process: Half of the liquid smoke was dispensed into a container, frankfurters were added, and then the remaining liquid smoke was sprayed using a commercial spray nozzle; liquid smoke covered entire surface of frankfurters Pressure: Pressure to the spray nozzle used in the two-stage process was 30 psig and controller was set to one shot mode Other: · Liquid smoke contained 1.8-2.1% titratable acidity and had a phenol content of 0.3-0.8 mg/mL · Frankfurters were vacuum sealed for long-term storage | Time: Storage time Concentration: Presence or absence of liquid smoke on surface of frankfurters | In simulated post-process contamination, liquid smoke application just after casing removal and prior to Lm inoculation resulted in a decline in Lm levels to below detection levels within 48 hours when stored at 4°C. In a shelf-life study, liquid smoke application prior to inoculation with Lm suppressed Lm growth for up to 130 days when stored at 4°C. Two-stage application of liquid smoke (2 or 3 mL) at packaging (post-contamination) resulted in an initial 1-log reduction in Lm at 8 and 12 hours post-packaging. Liquid smoke could be considered a post-lethality treatment that reduces or eliminates Lm, and can also prevent growth during shelf life. |
| Mbandi, E., and Shelef, L. A. 2001. Enhanced inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enteritidis in meat by combinations of sodium lactate and diacetate. J. Food Prot. 64:640. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Comminuted beef | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, sodium acetate, and sodium diacetate) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Cooking time: 15 min · Storage time: up to 20 days Temperature: · Cooking temperature: 121°C · Storage temperature: 5 or 10°C Concentration: · Sodium lactate (SL): 1.8 to 2.5% · Sodium diacetate (SD): 0.1 and 0.2% · Sodium acetate (SA): 0.2% pH: · Initial meat pH: 6.3 · After addition of SL and SA: 6.3 · After addition of SDA: 5.9 · After storage: pH increased 0.2 to 0.3 pH units after 20 days storage Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with the comminuted meat Spatial Configuration: 11 g samples of beef (to which SL, SD, and/or SA had already been added) were placed in plastic cups for the heat treatment, cooled, then inoculated Other: The beef emulsion was made without salt and contained 79% moisture and 5% fat initially before treatments | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of sodium lactate and sodium diacetate | SL (1.8%) decreased the growth rate of both L. monocytogenes and Salmonella Enteritidis. SDA (0.2%) was more effective than SL in decreasing the growth rate of L. monocytogenes, and it caused a more than 1 log CFU/g decline in initial numbers of Salmonella Enteritidis during storage for 25 days at 10°C. Synergy was observed by combinations of SL and SDA. Combinations of 2.5% SL and 0.2% SDA were bacteriostatic to L. monocytogenes and bactericidal to Salmonella Enteritidis after 20 days at 10°C. At 5°C, a listeriostatic effect was produced by 1.8% SL 1 0.1% SDA, whereas numbers of Salmonella Enteritidis were less than 10 cells/g after refrigeration for 30 days. Although SA was consistently and significantly less inhibitory than SDA, its mixtures with SL also demonstrated synergistic activity against both pathogens. Combinations of 2.5% SL and 0.2% SDA can be expected to greatly enhance the safety of refrigerated and temperature-abused ready-to-eat meats. |
| Mbandi, E., and Shelef, L. A. 2002. Enhanced antimicrobial effects of combination of lactate and diacetate on Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. in beef bologna. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 76:191. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Beef bologna | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (Combinations of sodium lactate and sodium diacetate) | Time: · Storage time: up to 60 days Temperature: · Storage temperature: 5 or 10°C Concentration: · Sodium lactate (SL): 2.5% · Sodium diacetate (SD): 0.2% pH: · Initial bologna pH: 6.3 · Bologna plus lactate: 6.3 · Bologna plus diacetate: 5.9 · Bologna plus SL and SD: 6.1 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with meat Spatial Configuration: 11 g samples of meat were put into plastic cups prior to inoculation Other: The beef bologna was from a commercial source (Eckrich). | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of sodium lactate and sodium diacetate | Although lactate or diacetate alone exhibited anti-listerial activity in the tested RTE meat, enhanced inhibition was observed at both storage temperatures when the salt combination was used. In particular, Listeria numbers declined or remained unchanged during 45 days of storage at 5°C. Numbers of Salmonella organisms declined in the RTE meat at both 5 and 10°C, whether treated or untreated with the salts. However, the decline was faster in the presence of the salt combination. Increases in total aerobes in the meat were also influenced by the tested salts, and the salt combination was significantly more effective than the single salts in controlling growth during refrigerated storage. | |
| McDonnell LM, Glass KA, Sindelar JJ (2013) Identifying ingredients that delay outgrowth of Listeria monocytogenes in natural, organic, and clean-label ready-to-eat meat and poultry products. J Food Prot 76 (8):1366-1376. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked turkey slurries with added antimicrobials | Poultry | L. monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Cultured sugar-vinegar, vinegar-lemon juice, rosemary-tocopherol, green tea extract, cranberry concentrate, tea tree oil, rosemary extract plus nisin, cherry powder, vinegar-lemon-cherry powder, grape seed extract, buffered vinegar, liquid smoke extract, sodium lactate, sodium diacetate, nitrite) Each antimicrobial was tested in uncured, alternatively cured (pre-converted cultured nitrite), or traditionally cured formulations | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 4 weeks of storage Temperature: storage temperature of 4°C Concentration: · All formulations contained 2.0% sodium chloride · Traditionally cured formulations contained 0.0156% sodium nitrite and 0.0547% sodium erythorbate · Alternatively cured, cultured products contained 0.4% celery power (to provide an ingoing nitrate concentration of 0.014%), 0.2% cherry powder (18% ascorbic acid), and 0.18% S. carnosus bacterial starter culture · Alternatively cured, pre-converted products contained 0.3% celery powder (to provide an ingoing nitrite concentration of 0.0060% nitrite) and 0.2% cherry powder · Control formulations contained 0.0156% sodium nitrite, 0.0547% sodium erythorbate, 1.68% sodium lactate solids, and 0.112% sodium diacetate · See paper for usage levels of other antimicrobials used. Water Activity: pH: 5.68 to 6.29 prior to heating Product Coverage: In formulation | Time: Storage time Concentration: Concentration of nitrite and other antimicrobials | This row contains information on Phase 1 of the study; Phase 2 of the study is described in another row of the table. Final L. monocytogenes populations after 4 weeks of storage increased 6.0, 2.9, 3.4, and 4.0 log CFU/ml for uncured, traditional, cultured, and pre-converted systems, respectively. No growth occurred in the sodium lactate–diacetate–nitrite controls 4 weeks of storage at 4°C. Five antimicrobials inhibited growth (<0.4 log increase) in uncured, traditional, and alternatively cured systems: vinegar-lemon-cherry powder, cultured sugar-vinegar, vinegar-lemon juice, tea tree oil, and buffered vinegar. The other antimicrobials inhibited growth of the L. monocytogenes in the presence of nitrite, regardless of source, but did not inhibit growth in uncured treatments. |
| McDonnell LM, Glass KA, Sindelar JJ (2013) Identifying ingredients that delay outgrowth of Listeria monocytogenes in natural, organic, and clean-label ready-to-eat meat and poultry products. J Food Prot 76 (8):1366-1376. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Low-fat RTE products: uncured, deli-style turkey breast; whole muscle roast beef, and boneless ham | Beef Pork Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Cultured sugar-vinegar [CSV], vinegar-lemon juice [VL], buffered vinegar [BV]) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: up to 12 weeks of storage Temperature: storage temperature of 4°C and 7°C Concentration: · Turkey breast, roast beef, and ham contained 1.5%. 0.50%, and 2.35% salt in their brines, respectively · CV: 3.0% · VL: 2.5% · BV: 2.0% · Alternatively cured, pre-converted ham contained 0.3% celery powder (to provide an ingoing nitrite concentration of 0.0060% nitrite) and 0.2% cherry powder · Control ham formulation contained 0.0156% sodium nitrite, 0.0547% sodium erythorbate, 1.68% sodium lactate solids, and 0.112% sodium diacetate · See paper for usage levels of other antimicrobials used. Water Activity: 0.974 to 0.985 pH: 5.69 to 6.44 Product Coverage: In formulation Spatial Configuration: 3 mm thick slices Other: · Vacuum packaged in gas-impermeable pouches · % moisture: 65.12 to 74.10% in final products | Time: Storage time Concentration: Concentration of nitrite and other antimicrobials | This row contains information on Phase 2 of the study; Phase 1 of the study is described in another row of the table. Turkey breast: formulations with each of the three antimicrobials (CSV, VL, or BV) showed reduced L. monocytogenes growth compared to an antimicrobial-free control at 2 and 4 weeks storage at 4°C. BV delayed L. monocytogenes growth for 6 weeks at 4°C. Roast beef: no L. monocytogenes growth was observed for the formulations with each of the three antimicrobials throughout 12 weeks storage at 4°C. Ham: alternatively cured ham without other antimicrobial ingredients supported >2 log increases of L. monocytogenes within 2 weeks at 4°C. Significantly less growth was observed when either of the three antimicrobials was present in the formulation after 2 and 4 weeks. Boneless ham traditionally cured and containing lactate/diacetate and formulations with BV or CVS delayed growth through 8 weeks at 4°C similarly relative to alternatively cured formulations without other antimicrobials. At 7°C, controls without antimicrobial ingredients supported a 5.5-, 3.7-, and 2.5-log increase at 2 weeks for turkey breast, boneless ham, and roast beef, respectively. All boneless ham and turkey breast treatments supported >2-log increase at 4 weeks, regardless of antimicrobial ingredient addition. In contrast, roast beef supplemented with CSV and BV delayed growth through 6 weeks, whereas VLC supported a 1-log increase of L. monocytogenes at 4 weeks. |
| McMinn, R., Sindelar, J. J., Glass, K. A., and Hanson, R. 2016. Thermal inactivation of Salmonella in high-fat frankfurters. Meat Sci. 112:164. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | High-fat turkey and pork frankfurters | Turkey and pork | Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Thermal inactivation) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Cook time: to an internal temperature of 54.4, 62.7, or 71.1°C Temperature: Internal temperature of 54.4 to 71.1°C Concentration: No concentrations of salt, etc. were specified. Humidity: ≥50% RH for half the duration of the cook cycle OR steam application during the final step of the process to mimic a surface lethality treatment Spatial Configuration: Inoculated batter was stuffed into size 28 cellulose casings with 6 inch links prior to thermal treatment Other: Frankfurters were made from mechanically-separated turkey and 50% lean pork trimmings | Temperature: Internal temperature Humidity: During or at end of cook cycle Spatial configuration: Small diameter sausages Other: Fat content | The control cycle produced an average log reduction of-0.01 ± 0.04, 6.86 ± 0.11, and 6.86 ± 0.11 for the 54.4 °C, 62.7 °C, and 71.1 °C target temperatures, respectively. The test cycle achieved an average log reduction of 0.07 ± 0.11,5.94 ± 1.30, and 6.91 ± 0.18 for the54.4 °C, 62.7 °C, and 71.1 °C target temperatures, respectively. The test cycle achieved lethality comparable to that seen with the control cycle. Appendix A time-temperature recommendations are adequate for controlling Salmonella in high-fat, small diameter product |
| Messina MC, Ahmad HA, Marchello JA, Gerba CP, Paquette MW (1988) The effect of liquid smoke on Listeria monocytogenes. J Food Prot 51 (8):629-631. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Beef frankfurters | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Liquid smoke) | Pathogen reduction | Time: 0 min and 72 hr after treatment with liquid smoke or control solution Temperature: Storage temperature during 72 hr storage was 4°C Concentration: Full strength liquid smoke (CharSol-10) Contact Time: Dipped into full-strength CharSol-10 after inoculation Product Coverage: Product was immersed into the CharSol-10 Other: The 72-hr storage was done under vacuum within P.51B barrier bags | Concentration: Liquid smoke used as a dip | Listeria numbers decreased by 3 log to below detection following dipping with liquid smoke and storage for 72 hr at 4°C. Dipping alone without storage was able to reduce Listeria numbers by at least 60% relative to the controls which were not dipped in liquid smoke. |
| Miller, R. K., and Acuff, G. R. 1994. Sodium lactate affects pathogens in cooked beef. J. Food Sci. 59:15. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked, quartered beef top rounds containing sodium lactate | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella spp. Clostridium perfringens E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate) | Time: · Vacuum tumbling time after injection: 2 hours, then equilibrated for 36 hours, then re-tumbled for 15 min · Cooking time: to an internal temperature of 63°C · Inoculation dip time: 10 sec · Storage time after inoculation: up to 28 days Temperature: · Vacuum tumbling temperature: 4°C · Internal temperature during cooking: 63°C · Cooling temperature before inoculation: 0°C · Storage temperature after inoculation: 10°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 0.5% · Sodium tripolyphosphate: 0.3% · Sodium lactate: 1 to 4% on a raw, dry weight basis Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were incorporated into the raw meat Spatial Configuration: Slices (3 x 3 x 0.2 cm) were inoculated by dipping and placed into Saran-coated PVC barrier bags and vacuum packaged Other: After tumbling with antimicrobials, beef rounds were vacuum packaged and cooked in cooking bags | Time: Storage time Concentration: Sodium lactate ≥3% | Three and 4% sodium lactate generally displayed-limited proliferation of S. typhimurium, L. monocytogenes and E. coli 0157:H7 when compared with control roasts (0% sodium lactate) and roasts containing 2% sodium lactate. Sodium lactate was not inhibitory for S. aureus growth in this study. Because C. perfringens levels began to decrease even on control roasts early during storage, it was not possible to observe an effect of lactate on this pathogen. | |
| Morey A, Bratcher CL, Singh M, McKee SR (2012) Effect of liquid smoke as an ingredient in frankfurters on Listeria monocytogenes and quality attributes. Poult Sci 91 (9):2341-2350. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Chicken and pork frankfurters, casings removed | Pork Chicken | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Liquid smoke in formulation) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 12 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: 0 to 10% liquid smoke in formulation of frankfurtuers Product Coverage: Liquid smoke was in formulation Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters were packaged 4/bag Other: Frankfurters were vacuum packaged prior to storage | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of liquid smoke in frankfurter formulation | Frankfurter formulations that contained ≥2.5% liquid smoke had suppressed growth of Lm throughout the storage period. 10% liquid smoke formulations had the best Lm growth suppression. Although liquid smoke formulations showed growth suppression, listericidal effects were not observed. Other studies (Gedela et al., 2007a; Faith et al., 1992; Gedela et al., 2007b) have shown listericidal effects for liquid smoke dips on frankfurters, possibly because the pH of the liquid smoke, when used as a dip, is lower than in a formulation that contains liquid smoke. |
| Morey, A., Bowers, J. W. J., Bauermeister, L. J., Singh, M., Huang, T. S., and McKee, S. R. 2014. Effect of Salts of Organic Acids on Listeria monocytogenes, Shelf Life, Meat Quality, and Consumer Acceptability of Beef Frankfurters. J. Food Sci. 79:M54. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Beef frankfurters | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, potassium lactate, sodium citrate, sodium diacetate) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Storage time: up to 9 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: All frankfurters contained a seasoning mix that contained sodium nitrite. The different formulations tested were as follows: 1. Control (C) 2. 2% sodium lactate (SL) 3. 2% potassium lactate (PL) 4. 0.75% sodium citrate (SC) 5. 2% SL plus 0.25% diacetate (SL/SD) Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were incorporated in the formulation of the frankfurters Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters weighed about 56 g each and were surface inoculated before vacuum packaging (1/bag) Other: · Beef used to make frankfurters was ~28% fat · Frankfurters were vacuum packaged in 20.3 x 25.4 cm, 3 mil nylon/PE pouches for storage | Time: Storage time Concentration: SL, PL, and SL/SD | Organic acids formulated into beef frankfurters stored at 4 °C showed that SL, PL, and SL/SD treatments were effective (P ≤ 0.05) at inhibiting the growth of L. monocytogenes through 9 wk of storage compared to the control. Sodium citrate was not able to inhibit L. monocytogenes growth in the frankfurters and allowed growth comparable to the control. SL/SD scored lower in terms of sensory testing than did SL and PL. |
| Moschonas, G., Geornaras, I., Stopforth, J. D., Wach, D., Woerner, D. R., Belk, K. E., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2012. Activity of Caprylic Acid, Carvacrol, epsilon-Polylysine and their Combinations against Salmonella in Not-Ready-to-Eat Surface-Browned, Frozen, Breaded Chicken Products. J. Food Sci. 77:M405. | NFC/NSS | Not ready-to-eat, surface browned, frozen, breaded chicken products | Chicken | Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Surface browning) Antimicrobials (Caprylic acid, carvacrol, Ɛ-polylysine, and their combinations) Storage/holding (at -20°C) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Surface browning: 15 min · Frozen storage time: 7 days Temperature: · Temperature of oven for surface browning: 208°C · Average maximum temperature in geometric center of samples during browning: 42.5 to 50.8°C · Storage temperature: -20°C Concentration: · All formulations contained sodium chloride (1.2%) and sodium tripolyphosphate (0.3%) · Select formulations contained one or more of the following: o Caprylic acid (CAA): 0.25 to 1% o Carvacrol (CAR): 0.3 to 0.5% o Ɛ-polylysine (POL): 0.125 to 1% Water Activity: 0.962 to 0.978 pH: 5.82 to 6.99 Product Coverage: Chicken breasts were inoculated and mixed with antimicrobials, then ground and formed into 9 x 5 x 3 cm pieces prior to breading Spatial Configuration: 9 x 5 x 3 cm pieces of formed chicken Other: Surface-browned chicken products were allowed to cool and then were individually packaged in double-zipper plastic bags for storage | Time: · Surface browning time · Frozen storage time Temperature: Maximum temperature in geometric center of samples during surface browning Concentration: Concentration of CAA, CAR, or POL Product coverage: Grinding of chicken breasts with antimicrobials | Surface browning decreased Salmonella spp. levels by 0.5 to 1.1 log in the absence of antimicrobials. Salmonella levels decreased 0.8 to 1.4 log during 7 days of frozen storage in the absence of any added antimicrobials. Salmonella levels decreased more when antimicrobials were present during grinding, after browning, and during storage: Pathogen [Salmonella spp.] counts of products treated with 2‐ or 3‐ingredient combination treatments (0.03125% to 0.25% CAA, 0.0375% to 0.3% CAR, and/or 0.5% POL) were 0.4 to at least 3.3 log CFU/g lower (depending on treatment) than those of the untreated controls. The antimicrobial activity of 2‐ingredient combinations comprised of 0.125% CAA, 0.15% CAR, or 0.5% POL was enhanced (P < 0.05) when applied as a 3‐ingredient combination (that is, 0.125% CAA + 0.15% CAR + 0.5% POL). |
| Moschonas, G., Geornaras, I., Stopforth, J. D., Wach, D., Woerner, D. R., Belk, K. E., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2012. Antimicrobials for Reduction of Salmonella Contamination in Uncooked, Surface-Browned Breaded Chicken Products. J. Food Prot. 75:1023. | NFC/NSS | Not ready-to-eat, surface browned, frozen, breaded chicken products | Chicken | Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Surface browning) Antimicrobials (Caprylic acid, carvacrol, Ɛ-polylysine, and their combinations) Storage/holding (at -20°C) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Surface browning (oven): 15 min · Surface browning (fryer): 15 sec · Frozen storage time: 7 days Temperature: · Temperature of oven for surface browning: 208°C · Temperature of deep fryer: 190°C · Average maximum temperature in geometric center of samples o During oven browning: 44.1°C o During deep frying: 35.3°C · Storage temperature: -20°C Concentration: · All formulations contained sodium chloride (1.2%) and sodium tripolyphosphate (0.3%) · Select formulations contained one or more of the following: o Caprylic acid (CAA): 0.5 to 1% o Carvacrol (CAR): 0.3 to 0.5% o Ɛ-polylysine (POL): 0.125 to 0.25% Water Activity: 0.975 to 0.980 pH: 5.66 to 6.30 Product Coverage: Chicken breasts were inoculated and mixed with antimicrobials, then ground and formed into 9 x 5 x 3 cm pieces prior to breading Spatial Configuration: 9 x 5 x 3 cm pieces of formed chicken Other: Surface-browned chicken products were allowed to cool and then were individually packaged in double-zipper plastic bags for storage | Time: · Surface browning time · Frozen storage time Temperature: Maximum temperature in geometric center of samples during surface browning Concentration: Concentration of CAA, CAR, or POL Product coverage: Grinding of chicken breasts with antimicrobials Other: Browning method | Total reductions of inoculated Salmonella in untreated control oven- or fryer-browned products after frozen storage were 1.2 and 0.8 log CFU/g, respectively. In comparison, treatment with CAA, CAR, or POL reduced initial pathogen [Salmonella spp.] counts by 3.3 to >4.5, 4.1 to >4.7, and 1.1 to 1.6 log CFU/g, respectively, regardless of the antimicrobial concentration and browning method. Treatment with 1.0% CAA (oven browned) or 0.5% CAR (oven or fryer browned) reduced Salmonella to nondetectable levels (≤0.3 log CFU/ g) in stored frozen products. |
| Moschonas, G., Geornaras, I., Stopforth, J. D., Woerner, D. R., Belk, K. E., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2015. Effect of Product Dimensions and Surface Browning Method on Salmonella Contamination in Frozen, Surface-Browned, Breaded Chicken Products Treated with Antimicrobials. J. Food Sci. 80:M2815. | NFC/NSS | Not ready-to-eat, surface browned, frozen, breaded chicken products | Chicken | Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Surface browning) Antimicrobials (Caprylic acid, carvacrol, Ɛ-polylysine, and their combinations) Storage/holding (at -20°C) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Surface browning (oven): 15 min · Surface browning (fryer): 15 sec · Frozen storage time: 8 days Temperature: · Temperature of oven for surface browning: 208°C · Temperature of deep fryer: 190°C · Average maximum temperature in geometric center of samples o During oven browning: 46.0 to 62.4°C o During deep frying: 31.7 to 35.0°C · Storage temperature: -20°C Concentration: · All formulations contained sodium chloride (1.2%) and sodium tripolyphosphate (0.3%) · Select formulations contained one or more of the following: o Caprylic acid (CAA): 0.0625 to 0.25% o Carvacrol (CAR): 0.075 to 0.15% o Ɛ-polylysine (POL): 0.5% pH: · Raw chicken: 5.83 · Inoculated raw chicken: 5.84 · After surface browning: 5.94 to 6.39 · After frozen storage: 5.92 to 6.33 Product Coverage: Chicken breasts were inoculated and mixed with antimicrobials, then ground and formed into pieces of two different sized (see below) prior to breading Spatial Configuration: 9 x 5 x 3 cm pieces (150 g) or 9 x 2.5 x 2 cm (50 g) pieces of formed chicken Other: Surface-browned chicken products were allowed to cool and then were individually packaged in double-zipper plastic bags for storage | Time: · Surface browning time · Frozen storage time Temperature: Maximum temperature in geometric center of samples during surface browning (which is related to browning method) Concentration: Concentration of CAA, CAR, or POL Product coverage: Grinding of chicken breasts with antimicrobials Spatial configuration: Product dimensions Other: Browning method | After frozen storage, Salmonella reductions were greater for the smaller sized oven-browned samples. However, product size did not affect the Salmonella reductions obtained with fryer-browned samples. Overall, the present study showed that surface browning method, antimicrobial treatment, and product dimensions affected reductions of Salmonella in frozen, NRTE, breaded chicken products. While product dimensions did not affect pathogen [Salmonella reductions in samples surface-browned by flash frying, oven browning of 9 × 2.5 × 2 cm samples resulted in greater reductions of Salmonella than oven browning of 9 × 5 × 3 cm samples. Notably, there was complete inactivation of initial Salmonella populations in oven-browned, smaller-sized samples treated with antimicrobials. The microbiological findings of this study can most likely be partly explained by the differences in the maximum temperature reached in the geometric center of products during surface browning. |
| Mukherjee, A., Yoon, Y., Belk, K. E., Scanga, J. A., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2008. Thermal inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in beef treated with marination and tenderization ingredients. J. Food Prot. 71:1349. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ground beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (citric acid, acetic acid, potassium lactate, calcium lactate, calcium ascorbate, calcium chloride, and sodium chloride) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Mixing time (ground beef with antimicrobials): 2 min Overnight storage after inoculation: 18 hours Heat treatment time: until 60°C or 65°C was reached (12 or 19 min) Temperature: Overnight storage after inoculation: 4°C Internal temperature at end of heat treatment: 60 or 65°C Water bath temperatures: 65 or 70°C Concentration: Citric acid: 0.2% Acetic acid: 0.3% Potassium lactate: 1.8% Calcium lactate: 0.63% Calcium ascorbate: 0.86% Calcium chloride: 0.23% Sodium chloride: 2.5% Water Activity: Before cooking: 0.957 to 0.987; after cooking: 0.968 to 0.988 pH: Before cooking: 4.91 to 5.60; after cooking: 5.08 to 5.83 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with ground beef prior to inoculation, which was done in the center of 30 g samples with a pipette Spatial Configuration: 30 g samples extruded into 2.5 x 10 cm test tubes Equipment Settings: Mixer setting (Professional 600 KitchenAid): 2 Other: Ground beef was 5% fat; fat content before heating was 3.6 to 6.6% after heating was 3.7 to 7.9% Moisture content was 69.5 to 71.7% before heating; 64.0 to 69.9% after heating. | Temperature: Internal temperature of 60 or 65°C Concentration: Concentration of citric acid, acetic acid, and sodium chloride | At 65C, treatments with citric and acetic acid showed greater reduction (4 to 5 log CFU/g) of E. coli O157:H7 than all the other ingredients and the control (3 to 4 log CFU/g). Sodium chloride reduced weight losses (16 to 18% compared with 20 to 27% by citric or acetic acid) and resulted in a 4-log reduction in counts during cooking to 65°C. Ingredients such as citric or acetic acid may improve thermal inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 internalized in nonintact beef products, while sodium chloride may reduce cooking losses in such products. |
| Mukherjee, A., Yoon, Y., Geornaras, I., Belk, K. E., Scanga, J. A., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2009. Effect of Meat Binding Formulations on Thermal Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Internalized in Beef. J. Food Sci. 74:M94. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ground beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Lactic acid) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Mixing time (ground beef with antimicrobials): 2 min Overnight storage after inoculation: 18 hours Heat treatment time: until 60°C or 65°C was reached Temperature: Overnight storage after inoculation: 4°C Internal temperature at end of heat treatment: 60 or 65°C Water bath temperatures: 65 or 70°C Concentration: · Salt/phosphate (1.4% sodium chloride/0.32% sodium tripolyphosphate) · Sodium alginate (0.4%)/calcium carbonate (0.075%), and encapsulated lactic acid/calcium lactate (0.6%) · Activa RM (a commercial transglutaminase preparation): 0.75% · Fibrimex (a mixture of fibrinogen and thrombin; 10%) · Lactic acid (0.27%) Water Activity: Before cooking: 0.978 to 0.993; after cooking: 0.975 to 0.990 pH: Before cooking: 5.29 to 5.78; after cooking: 5.38 to 5.92 Product Coverage: Inoculum and then formulation ingredients were mixed with ground beef Spatial Configuration: 30 g samples extruded into 2.5 x 10 cm test tubes Equipment Settings: Mixer setting (Professional 600 KitchenAid): 2 Other: Ground beef was 5% fat; | Temperature: Internal temperature at end of heat treatment Concentration: Lactic acid | This study tested the effects on various meat binding or restructuring agents on thermal inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in ground beef. Cooking to 60 or 65°C reduced bacterial counts of control samples by 1.8 and 3.2 log CFU/g, respectively. Thermal destruction at 60°C was not different among all treatments and the control. At 65°C, greater thermal inactivation of E. coli O157:H7, as compared to the control, was obtained in samples treated with lactic acid alone (reductions of 4.9 log CFU/g), whereas for all other treatments, microbial destruction (reductions of 2.2 to 4.5 log CFU/g) was comparable to that of the control… Findings indicated that, under the conditions examined, restructuring of beef with salt/phosphate, algin/calcium, Activa RM, or Fibrimex did not affect inactivation of internalized E. coli O157:H7 in undercooked (60 or 65°C) samples, whereas inclusion of lactic acid (0.27%) in nonintact beef products enhanced pathogen destruction at 65°C. |
| Murano, E. A., Murano, P. S., Brennan, R. E., Shenoy, K., and Moreira, R. G. 1999. Application of high hydrostatic pressure to eliminate Listeria monocytogenes from fresh pork sausage. J. Food Prot. 62:480. | Raw | Fresh ground pork patties | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Mild heat treatment) High pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: HPP time: up to 60 min Mild heat treatment: up to 10 min Temperature: Mild heat treatment: 50°C Pressure: 414 MPa Equipment Settings: · Mild heat treatment was performed in the HPP instrument · Inoculum was missed to the pork using a KitchenAid bowl mixer for 2 minutes Other: Inoculated pork patties were packaged under vacuum prior to HPP treatment | Time: HPP time Temperature: HPP temperature Pressure: HPP pressure | The average D values for L. monocytogenes strains when HPP was performed at 25°C were 1.89 to 4.17 min. When a higher temperature (50°C) was used, the average D values were significantly shorter (0.37 to .63 min). An HPP treatment at 414 MPa and 50°C could achieve a 10-log reduction in a pressure-resistant L. monocytogenes strain in as little as 6 minutes. |
| Muriana P, Gande N, Robertson W, Jordan B, Mitra S (2004) Effect of prepackage and postpackage pasteurization on postprocess elimination of Listeria monocytogenes on deli turkey products. J Food Prot 67 (11):2472-2479. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat deli turkey products(oven roasted, seasoned turkey, oil browned, skin-on, turkey pastrami) | Turkey | Listeria monocytogens | Temperature control (Heat treatment; pre-package radiant heat surface pasteurization [RHSP] and post-package submerged water pasteurization [SWP]) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · RHSP time: 50 to 75 sec · SWP time: 45 sec to 5 min Temperature: · RHSP temperature: 399°C · SWP time: 93.3°C Spatial Configuration: Meat products weighed 1.8 to 5.0 kg Equipment Settings: See paper for details on the radiant heat oven that was used for RHSP; details on the SWP are provided in an earlier paper (Muriana et al., 2002) Other: · A contact inoculation method was used. After RHSP, products were cooled in an ice-water slurry. Products that were treated with SWP were vacuum packaged without chilling prior to SWP treatment. | Time: · RHSP time · SWP time Temperature: · RHSP time · SWP time Spatial Configuration: Surface characteristics of meat products (presence of skin, black pepper, etc.) can impact how well RHSP works. | This study tested the ability of radiant heat surface pre-package pasteurization and post-package submerged water pasteurization (alone, or in combination) to reduce L. monocytogenes levels on deli turkey products. RHSP for 60 sec achieved a 2 to 2.8 log reduction in L. monocytogenes numbers, while a 75 sec treatment was associated with a 2.8 to 3.8 log reduction in L. monocytogenes numbers. The black pepper seasoned turkey product had the lowest level of L. monocytogenes reduction of the products tested, presumably because the seasoning shielded the radiant heat. SWP alone for 2-5 min at 93.3°C reduced L. monocytogenes numbers by 1.95 to 3 log. RHSP (60 sec) with SWP (1 to 1.5 min) together yielded a 3 to 4 log reduction in L. monocytogenes numbers. |
| Muriana PM, Quimby W, Davidson CA, Grooms J (2002) Postpackage pasteurization of ready-to-eat deli meats by submersion heating for reduction of Listeria monocytogenes. J Food Prot 65 (6):963-969. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat meat products, including turkey, ham and roast beef in 5-12 lb. pieces | Beef Pork Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Post-package submerged water pasteurization) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Pasteurization time: 2 to 10 min · Cooling time in ice water after pasteurization: 3 to 5 min Temperature: · Pasteurization temperature: 90.6 to 96.1°C Concentration: Some of the products tested were cured, smoked, or sodium-lactate injected. Spatial Configuration: Products were in large pieces (5-12 lb.), some with skin, black pepper coating, or other surface irregularities Equipment Settings: See paper for details on water bath configuration Other: Products were vacuum sealed in shrink-wrap packaging bags following inoculation and prior to pasteurization | Time: Pasteurization time Temperature: Pasteurization temperature Spatial Configuration: Surface characteristics of meat products (presence of skin, black pepper, etc.) can impact how well submerged water pasteurization works. | In this study, large portions (5-12 lb.) of various ready-to-eat products were inoculated with L. monocytogenes and treated with post-package pasteurization by submersion in hot water. Depending on the meat type, processing temperature and time, L. monocytogenes numbers were reduced 2 to 4 logs with post-package submerged water pasteurization. A heating regimen of 2 min at 90.6 to 96.1°C can provide a 2-log reduction in L. monocytogenes numbers in most RTE deli meats, heating only the outer 1 cm of the meat. Lower temperatures (85 to 88°C) were not sufficient to achieve such a reduction during short time periods. These reductions were significantly less than those seen when L. monocytogenes were suspended in meat purge treated by submerged water pasteurization. The lower reductions seen on the deli meats was attributed to the bacteria infiltrating small cuts, fold, grooves, and skin of the meat products and shielding the bacteria from the heat. Skin-on turkey resulted in lower reductions in L. monocytogenes than other meats. |
| Murphy RY, Berrang ME (2002) Thermal lethality of Salmonella senftenberg and Listeria innocua on fully cooked and vacuum packaged chicken breast strips during hot water pasteurization. J Food Prot 65 (10):1561-1564. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat fully cooked and vacuum packaged chicken breast strips | Chicken | Salmonella Senftenberg Listeria innocua | Temperature control (Post-package submerged water pasteurization) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Pasteurization time: 0 to 40 min Temperature: Pasteurization temperature: 88°C Water Activity: Chicken strips water activity: 0.95 pH: Chicken strip pH was 6.5 Spatial Configuration: Packaged in two different sized pouches containing 227 g or 454 g Other: Chicken strips were 22.6% protein, 3.6% fat, 0.5% sodium salt Inoculated chicken strips were vacuum packaged in 0.2 mm thick pouches (114 x 114 mm or 241 x 114 mm) | Time: Pasteurization time Temperature: Pasteurization temperature Spatial Configuration: Size of package | This study tested the ability of hot water, in-package pasteurization to reduce levels of Salmonella Senftenberg or Listeria innocua which were inoculated on ready-to-eat chicken strips. 7-log reductions in both organisms were obtained with 454 g packages heated at 88°C for 34 min. A shorter period of time (20 min) was needed to obtain the same 7-log reductions for a smaller (227 g) package. A predictive model was also generated using data from the study. |
| Murphy RY, Dunca LK, Johnson ER, Davis MD, Wolfe RE, Brown HG (2001) Thermal lethality of Salmonella Senftenherg and Listeria innocua in fully cooked and packaged chicken breast strips via steam pasteurization. J Food Prot 64 (12):2083-2087. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat fully cooked and vacuum packaged chicken breast strips | Chicken | Salmonella Senftenberg Listeria innocua | Temperature control (Post-package steam pasteurization) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Steam pasteurization time: 26 to 41 min Temperature: · Steam pasteurization temperature: 88°C · Meat temperature at center of pouch: 70°C when 7-log reductions were found. Water Activity: Chicken strips: 0.95 pH: Chicken strips: 6.5 Spatial Configuration: Individual chicken breast strips were 13 x 13 x 114 mm in size Other: · Chicken strips were 22.6% protein, 3.6% fat, 0.5% sodium salt · Inoculated chicken strips were vacuum packaged in 0.2 mm thick pouches (241 x 114 mm) · Pasteurization was done either in a batch or a continuous process. | Time: Steam pasteurization time Temperature: Steam pasteurization time Other: Continuous vs. batch process | This study tested the ability of in-package steam pasteurization to reduce levels of Salmonella Senftenberg or Listeria innocua which were inoculated on ready-to-eat chicken strips. 7-log reductions in either organism was obtained with 454 g packages heated at 88°C for 34 min when a continuous process was used. A slightly longer (40 min) treatment was required when a batch process was used as the heating was slower than in the continuous process. Predictive models were also generated using data from the study. |
| Myers K, Cannon J, Montoya D, Dickson J, Lonergan S, Sebranek J (2013) Effects of high hydrostatic pressure and varying concentrations of sodium nitrite from traditional and vegetable-based sources on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes on ready-to-eat (RTE) sliced ham. Meat Sci 94 (1):69-76. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat sliced ham | Pork | L. monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · HPP time: 180 sec · Storage time: up to 182 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: ~17°C · Storage temperature: 4.4°C Concentration: · All formulations contained 1% sugar, 2.4% sodium chloride. · Conventionally cured products contained 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate and 500 ppm sodium erythorbate · Sodium nitrite: 100 or 200 ppm based on raw meat weight · Vegetable-based nitrite: 50 or 100 ppm · Nitrate: One formulation contained a nitrate-only (unconverted) vegetable powder pH: 6.13 to 6.39 Spatial Configuration: Casings were 8.38 cm in diameter; slices were 11 g each Pressure: HPP pressure: 400 or 600 MPa Other: · Inoculated slices were vacuum packaged · Moisture content was ~76%; fat content was between 1.38 and 1.77%; protein content was 17.97 to 18.41% | Pathogen reduction: Time: HPP time Pressure: HPP pressure Inhibition of pathogen growth: Time: Storage time Antimicrobials: Presence of sodium nitrite | Without HPP treatment, the presence of 200 ppm sodium nitrite resulted in significantly less L. monocytogenes growth at days 12 and 14 than did the vegetable-based nitrite at 100 or 50 ppm. However, by day 21, all formulations had >7.5 log CFU/g L. monocytogenes. The source of nitrite (vegetable-sourced or conventional) did not affect its ability to reduce L. monocytogenes growth. 600 MPa of HPP resulted in an immediate reduction (3.9 to 4.3 log CFU/g) in L. monocytogenes numbers. The reduction observed did not depend upon the formulation. A lower pressure (400 MPa) for the same length of time (3 min) reduced the L. monocytogenes by <1 log CFU/g. HPP did not affect residual nitrite levels. The addition of sodium nitrite together with 600 MPa HPP treatment appeared to reduce L. monocytogenes compared greater than HPP alone. |
| Myers K, Montoya D, Cannon J, Dickson J, Sebranek J (2013) The effect of high hydrostatic pressure, sodium nitrite and salt concentration on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes on RTE ham and turkey. Meat Sci 93 (2):263-268. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat sliced ham and turkey breast | Pork Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · HPP time: 3 min, not including a ~160 sec come-up time and almost instantaneous depressurization · Storage time: up to 182 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: ~17°C · Storage temperature: 4.4°C Concentration: · All formulations contained 1% dextrose and 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate · Sodium nitrite: 0 or 200 ppm · Sodium chloride: 1.8% or 2.4% pH: 6.33 to 6.4 Spatial Configuration: 11 g ham or turkey slices Pressure: 600 Mpa Other: · Meats were ground to 0.3175 cm prior to use · Formulations contained total moisture of ~77% in the final product; attempts were made to keep fat, protein, and PH also content between products · Slices were vacuum packaged in 13 x 29 cm packages with a O2 transmission rate of 3.5 cc/100 square in/day | Pathogen reduction: Time: HPP time Pressure: HPP pressure Inhibition of pathogen growth: Time: Storage time Antimicrobials: Presence of sodium nitrite | Nitrite slows but doesn’t stop L. monocytogenes growth during storage of RTE products. The species of meat did not affect the growth rate of L. monocytogenes in this study in which the formulations were carefully chosen to give very similar proximate compositions for turkey and ham products. HPP treatment resulted in an immediate 3.85 to 4.35 log CFU/g reduction in L. monocytogenes numbers which was independent of the type of meat or the formulation. At high inoculation levels, some L. monocytogenes cells could survive HPP treatment and grow at >120 days storage at 4°C. |
| National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. 2010. Parameters for determining inoculated pack/challenge study protocols. J. Food Prot. 73:140. | Any | Any | Any | L. monocytogenes Salmonella spp. Pathogenic E. coli Staphylococcus aureus Bacillus cereus Clostridium botulinum Vibrio spp. Clostridium perfringens | pH control Water activity control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Water Activity: See Table 2 of the paper pH: See Table 2 of the paper | pH control Water activity control | This NACMCF document provides a list of different pH values and water activity values where different pathogens are able to grow. Note that there is an error in the table: L. monocytogenes should be included among the pathogens that can growth at a water activity of >0.96 and a pH of 4.2 to 4.6. |
| Osterbauer KJ, King AM, Seman DL, Milkowksi AL, Glass KA, Sindelar JJ (2017) Effects of nitrite and erythorbate on Clostridium perfringens growth during extended cooling of cured ham. J Food Prot 80 (10):1697-1704. | HT/NSS | Cured boneless ham | Pork | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) Antimicrobials (Nitrite, erythorbate) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling (stabilization) | Time: · Cooking time: 3 to 5 minutes (until internal temperature reached 72°) · Cooling time from 54.4 to 26.7°C: 5 to 10 hours · Cooling time from 26.7 to 4.4°C: 10 to 15 hours Temperature: · Cooking temperature: 75°C water bath · Cooling from 54.4 to 26.7°C (Stage A) · Cooling from 26.7 to 4.4°C (Stage B) Concentration: · Sodium nitrite: 0 to 200 mg/kg · Sodium erythorbate: 0 to 250 mg/kg Water Activity: 0.973 to 0.980 pH: 6.08 to 6.21 Product Coverage: in formulation Spatial Configuration: 50 g samples, 3.18 mm thick, vacuum sealed in oxygen- and moisture-impermeable pouches Other: · NaCl upon proximate analysis: 1.75 to 2.10% · Moisture%: 75.44 to 75.65 · Residual nitrite was 60.8 to 75.7% of ingoing nitrite | Time: Cooling time Concentration: Sodium nitrite, sodium erythorbate | The growth of C. perfringens during extended cooling times of ham formulated with different concentrations of nitrite and erythorbate was tested in this study. With 200 mg/kg sodium nitrite and 547 mg/kg sodium erythorbate, extension of Stage A up to 10 hours or Stage B up to 15 hours did not permit C. perfringens growth. With 10 hour Stage A/15 hour Stage B and erythorbate at 547 mg/kg, C. perfringens growth was observed when nitrite was at 75 mg/kg or less. When nitrite was at 100 mg/kg, growth was seen in one set of experiments but not in another, probably because of small variations in pH and NaCl between ham lots. With 10 hour Stage A/15 hour Stage B and nitrite at 100 to 200 mg/kg, C. perfringens growth >1 log was observed for the following nitrite:erythorbate combinations: · 100: 250 · 100: 375 · 100: 547 · <1 log growth at 150: 250 · No growth at 200:250 Lower concentrations of erythorbate resulted in higher residual nitrite concentrations. Salt and pH can affect C. perfringens growth when nitrite and erythorbate are less than 150 and 250 mg/kg, respectively. When nitrite is at ≥150 mg/kg, erythorbate concentrations can be lowered to 250 mg/kg without more than 1 log of C. perfringens growth during the extended cooling schedule (10 hours for Stage 1 and 15 hours for Stage B). |
| Parikh, P. P., Williams, R. C., Mallikarjunan, P., Eifert, J. D., and Marcy, J. E. 2011. Concurrent use of ultraviolet light and citric acid, dimethyl dicarbonate or hydrogen peroxide to inactivate Listeria monocytogenes in chill brine. J. Food Saf. 31:530. | Other (Chill brine) | Chilled brined used for product cooling of RTE meats | NA | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Citric acid, dimethyl dicarbonate, hydrogen peroxide) Ultraviolet light | Pathogen reduction | Time: Initial UV treatment to decompose chloramines: 30 min Treatment time: up to 120 min of treatment Temperature: Temperature of brine during treatments: -1°C Concentration: Brine contained 8% NaCl and was made with tap water Citric acid (CA): 0.2 to 0.5% Dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC): 250 to 500 ppm Hydrogen peroxide: 2000 to 4000 ppm pH: Fresh brine pH was 7.1 Equipment Settings: A recirculating UV treatment unit was used; at a peak output of 254 nm, the UV dose was approximately 183 mL/cm2. Flow rate of brine though the unit was 198 L/ min. See paper for more details on UV light treatment. | Time: UV light and/or antimicrobial treatment time Concentration: Concentration of citric acid or dimethyl carbonate Other: UV dose | Chilled brine was inoculated with L. monocytogenes, and various combinations of UV light and antimicrobial treatments were tested for their ability to reduce L. monocytogenes numbers. Control experiments demonstrated that the low temperature and recirculation of the brine did not affect L. monocytogenes survival. UV light alone reduced L. monocytogenes numbers from 5.76 to less than 1 log CFU/mL within 15 min. The combinations of UV+0.5% CA and UV+500-ppm DMDC were found to be the most effective, where L. monocytogenes was undetectable via enrichment at 45 and 60 min of treatment, respectively. CA (0.5%) when used in the absence of UV resulted in non-detection of L. monocytogenes. However, the reduction rate was higher when UV was used concurrent with CA. |
| Porto ACS, Call JE, Luchansky JB (2004) Effect of reheating on viability of a five-strain mixture of Listeria monocytogenes in vacuum-sealed packages of frankfurters following refrigerated or frozen storage. J Food Prot 67 (1):71-76. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Frankfurters | Pork and beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (2% added potassium lactate) Temperature control: Heating by submersion in a heated water bath (following storage) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage time at 4°C: 3 or 15 days Storage time at -18°C: 30 days Heat treatment: up to 8 min Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C or -18°C Heat treatment: to reach a surface temperature of 60 to 90°C Concentration: Formulation of some frankfurters contained 2% potassium lactate Product Coverage: Potassium lactate was mixed into frankfurter batter Spatial Configuration: 56 g links Other: Frankfurters were vacuum packaged after inoculation | Time: Heat treatment time Temperature: Surface temperature of frankfurters | This study sought to determine whether prior storage conditions affected the ability of a subsequent heat treatment (such as one a consumer might use) to reduce L. monocytogenes levels on frankfurters. L. monocytogenes numbers on inoculated frankfurters did not change significantly after 1 month of frozen storage (-18°C). When stored at 4°C, no change in L. monocytogenes numbers was observed for frankfurters formulated with potassium lactate; however, a <1 log increase was observed in frankfurters that did not contain potassium lactate. Reheating after storage to a surface temperature of 70°C for at least 2 min or to ≥80°C for at least 0.6 min resulted in a 5-log reduction of L. monocytogenes numbers on frankfurters, regardless of whether potassium lactate was in the formulation or the temperature at which the frankfurters had been stored (4 or -18°C). |
| Porto-Fett ACS, Campano SG, Shoyer BA, Wadsworth S, Luchansky JB (2014) Viability of Listeria monocytogenes on Uncured Turkey Breast Commercially Prepared with and without Buffered Vinegar during Extended Storage at 4 and 10 degrees C. J Food Prot 77 (6):987-992. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Uncured, deli-style turkey breast | Turkey | L. monoctyogenes | Antimicrobial (buffered vinegar in formulation, sodium chlorite in vinegar on surface) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 90 days of storage Temperature: Storage temperature of 4 or 10°C Concentration: · Buffered vinegar (BV): 0 to 3.0% in formulation · Sodium chlorite in vinegar (VSC): 2 mL of a 2 to 10% solution (30 to 150 ppm, wt/wt) was added to surface of turkey slices Water Activity: 0.98 pH: 6.18 to 6.36 Contact Time: BV was in formulation; VSC was added to surface prior to packaging and remained present during storage Product Coverage: VSC was added to each package using a SLIC (sprayed lethality in container) system Spatial Configuration: Slices of ~100 g, ~1.25 cm thick Other: · Turkey breast slices were vacuum packaged to 950 mBar prior to storage · Moisture content was ~77%; fat content <1.3%, and salt content was 1.68 to 1.84% | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Buffered vinegar in formulation Sodium chlorite in vinegar on surface | When neither BV or VSC were used, Lm levels increased by >6 log CFU/slice when stored for 90 days at 4°C or 48 days at 10°C. 2 to 2.5% BV in the formulation and 2% VSC on the surface suppressed Lm growth: Lm increases of <2 log CFU/slice were observed when stored at 4°C. If the VSC is increased to 10%, no change in Lm levels were observed over 90 days (i.e., no growth was observed). Increasing BV to 3% resulted in a decrease in Lm (relative to baseline) by up to 1.3 log CFU per slice when stored at 4°C for 90 days. Adding VSC did not affect this decrease in L. monocytogenes levels. At 10°C, BV was not able to reduce L. monocytogenes numbers unless it was included at the formulation at 2.5% or higher and also treated with 10% VSC (this combination reduced Lm by 0.3 log CFU/slice). |
| Porto-Fett, A. C. S., Call, J. E., Hwang, C. A., Juneja, V., Ingham, S., Ingham, B., and Luchansky, J. B. 2009. Validation of commercial processes for inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on the surface of whole-muscle turkey jerky. Poult. Sci. 88:1275. | HT/SS | Whole-muscle turkey jerky | Turkey | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Thermal treatment) Water activity control (Drying) Antimicrobials (Marinade) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Marinade time: 15 min Come-up times: see paper Cook/dry time: 1.5, 2.5, or 3.5 hours Cooling time: 10-15 min Temperature: Marinade temperature: 4°C Temperature of meat strips before cooking/drying: 15.7°C Cook/dry temperature (target dry-bulb temperature): 73.8 or 82.2°C Cooling temperature: ~22°C Concentration: · Marinade contained ~3.5% salt · Marinade was applied at a ratio of 18.0% (v/w) Humidity: 23.4 to 49.1% RH depending on when during the cook/dry cycle it was measured and the temperature during cooking Water Activity: · 0.96 to 0.99 before drying · 0.80-0.95 after drying pH: · Marinade pH: 5.5 · Use of marinade did not affect the pH of the jerky · See paper for pH values during drying for different processes Product Coverage: Marinade was applied by immersion Spatial Configuration: Initial raw strips were 15 x 4 x 0.7 cm in size and weighed ~34.1 g were inoculated after marination and before drying | Time: Cooking time Temperature: Cook/dry (dry bulb) temperature Humidity: Average initial and final RH of 49.1 and 29.9%, respectively Other: Use of marinade (when cook/drying at 73.8°C for 2.5 hours) | Cooking-drying marinated turkey jerky at 73.8°C (165°F) or 82.2°C (180°F) resulted in a ≥ 7.1 log10 cfu/strip reduction of all 3 pathogens. For non-marinated jerky strips that were inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 or L. monocytogenes and cooked-dried at 82.2°C (180°F), a reduction of ≥ 7.4 log10 cfu/strip was observed, whereas for strips that were inoculated with Salmonella, a reduction of ≥ 6.8 log10 cfu/strip was observed. Cooking-drying non-marinated turkey breast strips at 73.8°C (165°F) for 3.5 h resulted in a reduction of ca. 7.1 to 7.6 log10 cfu/strip for all 3 pathogens, whereas for strips that were cooked-dried for 2.5 h, a reduction of ca. 5.4 to 6.2 log10 cfu/strip was observed. Only marinated turkey jerky that was cooked-dried for 3.5 h at 73.8°C (165°F) satisfied the USDA-FSIS standard of identity (moisture: protein ≤ 0.75:1.0) or shelf-stability (water activity of ≤ 0.80), or both, requirements for jerky. |
| Porto-Fett, A. C. S., Campano, S. G., Call, J. E., Shoyer, B. A., Yoder, L., Gartner, K., Tufft, L., Oser, A., Lee, J., and Luchansky, J. B. 2011. Validation of Food-Grade Salts of Organic Acids as Ingredients To Control Listeria monocytogenes on Pork Scrapple during Extended Refrigerated Storage. J. Food Prot. 74:394. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Pork scrapple | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Organic acid salts, including citrate, diacetate, lactate, propionate, levulinate) pH control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Scrapple cook time: until ~82°C Storage time: up to 50 days Temperature: Scrapple tempering temperature: ~82°C Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: Sodium citrate/sodium diacetate (Ional-Plus): 0.64% Potassium lactate-sodium diacetate: 3 to 4% Lactate-diacetate-propionate: 1.5 to 2.5% Levulinate: 2 or 2.5% (see paper for details on these organic acids) Water Activity: Scrapple products: 0.956 to 0.978 pH: pH of antimicrobial solutions in first phase of study: 6.0 to 7.5 pH of scrapple products: 5.58 to 6.38 Product Coverage: Citrate/diacetate was added during formulation prior to cooking. Other antimicrobials were added by mixing into the scrapple after cooking and portioning into loaves Spatial Configuration: Scrapple loaves were ~5 kg in weight, about 11 x 6 x 64 cm in size. These loaves were sliced into 11 x 6 x 1 cm slices (~80 g) for surface inoculation Other: A botanical flavor masking agent was used in some formulations in the second and third parts of this study | Time: Storage time Concentration: · Lactate/diacetate/propionate · Lactate diacetate · Levulinate · Citrate diacetate (only in combination with other antimicrobials) pH: pH of lactate/diacetate/propionate | In the first part of the study: With or without citrate/diacetate, L. monocytogenes levels increased by ~6.4 log CFU/g during 50 days of refrigerated storage. The use of other antimicrobial combinations (lactate/diacetate, lactate/diacetate/propionate, or levulinate) were more effective, allowing between 1.3 to 5.2 log CFU/g growth of L. monocytogenes. Combining citrate/diacetate with the other antimicrobials was most effective, with increases in L. monocytogenes of only 0.7 to 2.3 log CFU/g. In a second part of the experiment, the effect of pH adjustment of the 2.5% lactate/diacetate/propionate blend to 5.0 or 5.5 in the absence of citrate/diacetate resulted in very little (≤0.5 log CFU/g) L. monocytogenes growth. When the lower pH lactate/diacetate/propionate was used together with citrate/diacetate, L. monocytogenes numbers deceased by 0.3 to 0.8 log. In the third part of the experiment, a lower (1.5 or 1.94%) concentration of lactate/diacetate/propionate was pH adjusted to either 5.5 or 5.0. At the higher pH, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers increased up to 6 log, while at the lower pH of 5, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers showed minimal (≤0.62 log CFU/g) |
| Porto-Fett, A. C. S., Campano, S. G., Rieker, M., Stahler, L. J., McGeary, L., Shane, L. E., Shoyer, B. A., Osoria, M., and Luchansky, J. B. 2018. Behavior of Listeria monocytogenes on Mortadella Formulated Using a Natural, Clean-Label Antimicrobial Agent during Extended Storage at 4 or 12°C. J. Food Prot.:769. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | All-pork mortadella | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Liquid buffered vinegar, dry buffered vinegar, or a potassium lactate/sodium diacetate blend) Temperature control (Refrigeration) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Thermal processing time: to an internal temperature of 74°C · Storage time prior to slicing and inoculation: up to 2 days · Storage time after inoculation: up to 28 days (12°C) or 120 days (4°C) Temperature: · Internal temperature during thermal processing: 74°C · Storage temperature prior to slicing and inoculation: 4°C · Storage temperature after inoculation: 4 or 12°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 2.0% finished (in all formulations) · 0.6% celery powder (all formulations) · 02% cherry powder (all formulations · Liquid buffered vinegar (LBV): 1 or 1.5% · Dry buffered vinegar (DBV): 0.4, 0.6, or 1% · Potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate (KLac): 2.5% Water Activity: 0.96 to 0.97 pH: 6.36 to 6.57 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were added to product formulation Spatial Configuration: Fibrous casings (~120 mm in diameter and 60 cm long) were used for mortadella The mortadella was sliced 1.5 cm thick (~30 g slices) and surface inoculated Other: · Packages were vacuum sealed to 950 mBar prior to storage · Nitrite in final product: 28 to 46 ppm | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Liquid buffered vinegar, dry buffered vinegar, or lactate/sodium diacetate blend | In the absence of antimicrobials, L. monocytogenes levels increased by ca. 2.6 and 6.0 log CFU per slice after up to 120 or 28 days at 4 or 12°C, respectively. With inclusion of 1.0 or 1.5% LBV, 1.0% DBV, or 2.5% KLac as ingredients, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels decreased by ca. 0.3 to 0.7 log CFU per slice after 120 days at 4°C, whereas with inclusion of 0.4 or 0.6% DBV, L. monocytogenes levels increased by ca. 1.2 and 0.8 log CFU per slice, respectively. After 28 days at 12°C, inclusion of 2.5% KLac, 1.0 or 1.5% LBV, or 0.4 or 0.6% DBV resulted in a ca. 1.4- to 5.7-log increase in L. monocytogenes levels. When 1.0% DBV was included in the formulation, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels remained unchanged after 28 days at 12°C. However, product quality was lessened at this abusive storage temperature (12°C) for all treatments by the end of storage. Thus, inclusion of LBV or DBV, as clean-label ingredients, in mortadella is equally effective as KLac for controlling L. monocytogenes during storage at 4°C without adversely affecting product quality. |
| Porto-Fett, A. C. S., Campano, S. G., Shoyer, B. A., Israeli, D., Oser, A., and Luchansky, J. B. 2015. Comparative Efficacy of Potassium Levulinate with and without Potassium Diacetate and Potassium Propionate versus Potassium Lactate and Sodium Diacetate for Control of Listeria monocytogenes on Commercially Prepared Uncured Turkey Breast. J. Food Prot. 78:927. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Commercially prepared uncured turkey breast | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium levulinate [KLEV], potassium diacetate plus potassium propionate [KPD], potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate (KLD], lauric arginate (LAE) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage time: up to 90 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Potassium levulinate (KLEV): 0 to 2% · Potassium propionate: 0.1% · Potassium diacetate: 0.1% · Potassium lactate: 1.8% · Sodium diacetate: 0.125% · Lauric arginate (LAE): 44 ppm pH: Treated turkey breast products: 6.13 to 6.44 prior to storage Product Coverage: Antimicrobials (except LAE, which was applied to the cooked, inoculated products in packages) were in product formulation prior to cooking; see paper for details Spatial Configuration: Turkey slices were 1.25 cm thick and weighed ~100 g and were surface inoculated on top and bottom faces Other: Inoculated slices were vacuum packaged LAE was applied using a SLIC (spray lethality in the container) method; see (Porto-Fett et al., 2010) | Time: Storage time Concentration: Potassium levulinate, alone or in combination with potassium diacetate plus potassium propionate OR potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate; lauric arginate | Without inclusion of antimicrobials in the formulation, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels increased by ca. 5.2 log CFU per slice, whereas with the inclusion of 1.0 to 2.0% KLEV, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels increased by only ca. 2.9 to 0.8 log CFU per slice after 90 days at 4°C. When 1.0% KLEV and KPD were included as ingredients, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels increased by ca. 0.8 log CFU per slice after storage at 4°C for 90 days, whereas a decrease of ca. 0.7 log CFU per slice was observed when 1.5 or 2.0% KLEV and KPD were included as ingredients. When used alone, KPD was not effective (≥5.8-log increase). As expected, KLD was effective at suppressing L. monocytogenes in uncured turkey breast. When uncured turkey breast was formulated with KLD or KLEV (1.5%) or without antimicrobials and subsequently surface treated with LAE, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels decreased by ca. 1.0 log CFU per package within 2 h; no differences were observed in pathogen [L. monocytogenes] levels for product surface treated with or without LAE and stored for 90 days. Our results validate the use of KLEV to inhibit outgrowth of L. monocytogenes during refrigerated storage of uncured turkey breast. KLEV is at least as effective as KLD as an antilisterial agent. |
| Porto-Fett, A. C. S., Campano, S. G., Smith, J. L., Oser, A., Shoyer, B., Call, J. E., and Luchansky, J. B. 2010. Control of Listeria monocytogenes on commercially-produced frankfurters prepared with and without potassium lactate and sodium diacetate and surface treated with lauric arginate using the Sprayed Lethality in Container (SLIC (R)) delivery method. Meat Sci. 85:312. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Commercially produced frankfurters | Pork and beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate plus sodium diacetate, surface treatment with lauric arginate using the Sprayed Lethality in Container (SLIC) delivery method | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Pathogen reduction (LAE) | Time: Storage time: up to 120 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: Salt, phosphate, and sodium nitrite were included in the frankfurter formulation at unspecified levels Potassium lactate: 0.68 or 1.36% Sodium diacetate: 0.097 or 0.19% Lauric arginate ( LAE): 22 or 44 ppm Water Activity: 0.694 to 0.977 pH: All formulations of frankfurters had pH values between 5.91 and 5.94 at beginning of the study Product Coverage: Potassium lactate and sodium diacetate were added to the formulation; LAE was applied to the frankfurters in a package after inoculation via the SLIC method which is described in detail in this paper. Spatial Configuration: Frankfurter links were 1/8 lb. each Other: Proximate analysis showed sodium nitrite levels of 8 to 8.5 ppm | Time: Storage time Concentration: Potassium lactate, sodium diacetate, and lauric arginate | Without antimicrobials, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers remained relatively constant at ca. 3.3 log CFU/package for ca. 30 d, but then increased to ca. 8.4 log CFU/package over 120 d. Regardless of whether or not lactate and diacetate were included, when treated with LAE, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers decreased from ca. 3.3 log CFU/package to ca. 1.5 log CFU/package within 2 h, but then increased to 7.3 and 6.7 log CFU/package, respectively, after 120 d. When frankfurters were formulated with lactate and diacetate and treated with LAE, pathogen [L. monocytogenes] numbers decreased by ca. 2.0 log CFU/package within 2 h and remained relatively unchanged over the 120 d. These data confirm that LAE provides an initial lethality towards L. monocytogenes and when used in combination with reduced levels/ratio of lactate and diacetate as an ingredient for frankfurters provides inhibition through-out shelf life. |
| Rajkovic, A., Tomasevic, I., Smigic, N., Uyttendaele, M., Radovanovic, R., and Devlieghere, F. 2010. Pulsed UV light as an intervention strategy against Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on the surface of a meat slicing knife. Journal of Food Engineering 100:446. | Various | Meat extract, pork meat, Parisien sausage, fermented sausage | Various | L. monocytogenes E. coli O157:H7 | Pulsed light | Other: Reduction of pathogen on a food contact surface (knife) | Time: · Time between inoculation and light treatment: 1 min to 1 hour · Light pulse duration: 300 ms Temperature: Knife surface temperature: After five flashes, the surface of the knife increased 16°C Equipment Settings: · Pulse intensity: 3 J/cm2 · Input voltage: 3000 V · Number flashes: 1 or 5 · Flash rate: 1 pulse every 2 sec · See paper for details on lamp positioning and spectral distribution of the xenon lamp used · The knife tested as a polished stainless steel round knife with a diameter of 6.5 cm Other: The various meat products used in tests had different levels of protein (5 to 20.5%), carbohydrates (0 to 1.5%) and fat (0 to 31%) | Time: Time between inoculation and light treatment Equipment settings: Pulse intensity Other: Type of meat product previously cut by knife, and fat and protein content of the product | This study tested whether the use of pulsed light (Intense Light Pulses) could reduce the level of L. monocytogenes or E. coli O157:H7 on a stainless steel knife after cutting a meat product. The knife was used to cut one of a variety of types of meat, then the knife surface was inoculated within 30 sec with a pathogen. Pulsed light (1 or pulses) was applied to the surface of the knife within 1 and 60 minutes The pulsed light treatment was equally effective at inactivating L. monocytogenes and E. coli O157:H7 under the conditions (food types, different numbers of pulses) tested in this study. There was no significant difference in the level of inactivation obtained when 1 and 5 light pulses were compared. The highest effectiveness of the ILP (the complete inactivation of 6.5 log CFU/side of knife) was obtained when the knife surface was in contact with the products containing lower fat and protein content and when it was treated with pulsed light as fast as possible after the contamination (within 60 s). |
| Ramirez-Hernandez A, Inestroza B, Parks A, Brashears MM, Sanchez-Plata MX, Echeverry A (2018) Thermal inactivation of Salmonella in high-fat rendering meat products. J Food Prot 81 (1):54-58. | Raw (cooking lethality) | High fat (50%) beef trimming (rendering meat products) | Beef | Salmonella | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: heat treatment time of 1 s to 8 min Temperature: 60 to 95°C in water or 100 to 121°C in silicon oil Concentration: Fat content: 20 to 50% Humidity: Samples were in sealed bags so relative humidity was high throughout the heating process Spatial Configuration: 10 g of samples were put into aluminum bags and flattened to <5 mm thickness | Time: Time of heat treatment Temperature: Heat treatment temperature Concentration: Fat content Humidity: Although controlled humidity removal was not addressed in this laboratory study, the authors caution that as product moisture changes, the lethality will also be affected. | The thermal death curve values for low-fat rendering material at 60 to 95°C were 2.175, 0.658, 0.237, 1.563, 0.356, 0.284, 0.264, and 0.201 min and for high-fat rendering material at 100 to 121°C were 0.277, 0.286, 0.159, 0.143, 0.137, and 0.087 min. The z-values for both low- and high-temperature treatments were also calculated. The z-value of the Salmonella cocktail in high-fat rendering raw material at lower temperatures was 43.7°C, whereas at higher temperatures it was 42.86°C. The inactivation curves for all high temperatures evaluated (100 to 121°C) in high-fat rendered products (50%) are shown in Figure 1A and for all low temperatures in Figure 1B. A shoulder effect was identified in the survival curves as an expected result of the poor heat transfer throughout the high-fat matrix. Significant variability was observed in the results, which was also expected considering the type of food matrix being evaluated. Humidity also needs to be considered, as conditions of low humidity may increase thermal tolerance of some pathogens. |
| Ravishankar, S., Jaroni, D., Zhu, L. B., Olsen, C., McHugh, T., and Friedman, M. 2012. Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes on Ham and Bologna Using Pectin-Based Apple, Carrot, and Hibiscus Edible Films Containing Carvacrol and Cinnamaldehyde. J. Food Sci. 77:M377. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked, sliced commercial ham and bologna | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Edible films made from pectin [derived from apple, carrot, or hibiscus) containing carvacrol and cinnamaldehyde) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage time: up to 7 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Carvacrol: 1.5 to 3% · Cinnamaldehyde: 3% pH: pH of purees used to make films: · Apple: 3.20 to 3.46 · Carrot: 3.31 to 3.65 · Hibiscus: 2.49 to 2.65 Product Coverage: Top and bottom of slice pieces were covered with films Spatial Configuration: 5 g pieces of slices(~3 x 4 cm) were inoculated on the surfaces (both sides individually) and then wrapped in two pieces of film Other: · See paper for details regarding how the apple-, carrot-, and hibiscus-based edible films were made · Film thicknesses were 0.128 to 0.135 for apple; 0.040 to 0.049 for carrot, and 0.049 to 0.56 for hibiscus | Time: Storage time Concentration: · Carvacrol · Cinnamaldehyde Other: · Source of pectin (apple > carrot or hibiscus) · Type of meat (ham>bologna) | Carvacrol films showed better antimicrobial activity than cinnamaldehyde films. Compared to control films without antimicrobials, films with 3% carvacrol induced 1 to 3, 2 to 3, and 2 to 3 log CFU/g reductions [of L. monocytogenes] on ham and bologna at day 0, 3, and 7, respectively. Corresponding reductions with 1.5% carvacrol were 0.5 to 1, 1 to1.5, and 1 to 2 logs, respectively. At day 7, films with 3% cinnamaldehyde reduced L. monocytogenes population by 0.5 to1.5 and 0.5 to 1.0 logs on ham and bologna, respectively. Inactivation by apple films was greater than that by carrot or hibiscus films. Apple films containing 3% carvacrol reduced L. monocytogenes population on ham by 3 logs CFU/g on day 0 which was 1 to 2 logs greater than that by carrot and hibiscus films. Films were more effective on ham than on bologna. |
| Rivera-Reyes M, Campbell JA, Cutter CN (2017) Pathogen reductions associated with traditional processing of landjäger. Food Control 73:768-774. | NHT/SS | Landjäger, a semi-dry fermented sausage | Beef and pork | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella | Antimicrobials (lactic acid spray on trim; starter culture used was Safepro B-LC-007) pH control (fermentation) Water activity control (drying) Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Spray treatment of trim: 30 min · Fermentation: ~72 hrs to reach a pH of 4.8 · Smoking time: 2 hrs · Drying time: 3 days · Storage time: 20 days Temperature: · Spray treatment temperature: 25°C · Fermentation temperature: 23.3°C · Smoking temperature: 30°C · Drying temperature: 21.6°C · Storage temperature: ~23°C Concentration: · 4.5% lactic acid spray solution · Sausage contained 156 ppm sodium nitrite and 2.93% salt (wt/wt) · Revived started culture was added to obtain 7.2 log10/CFU/g Humidity: · Fermentation was done at 61% RH · Smoking was done at 70% RH · Drying was done at 60% RH Water Activity: Landjäger were dried to a water activity of 0.88 pH: · Lactic acid spray solution was at pH 2.5 · Landjäger were fermented to pH 4.8 Spatial Configuration: 32/35 mm hog casings were used; sausages were 20 cm long and weighed about 100 g after stuffing Other: 5% fat was used in the product formulation Landjäger were vacuum package prior to storage | Time: · Spray time · Fermentation time · Smoking time · Drying time · Storage time Temperature: Spray temperature · Fermentation temperature · Smoking temperature · Drying temperature · Storage temperature Concentration: Lactic acid spray solution Water activity: Final after drying pH: Final after fermentation | Lactic acid treatment of beef trim reduced EC, S, and LM 0.23, 0.42, and 0.22 log10 CFU/g, respectively. Subsequent fermentation and drying reduced EC, LM, and S 3.94, 4.11, and 4.29 log10 CFU/g respectively. Average log reductions of 7.83, 6.19, and 7.21 log10 CFU/g were observed for EC, LM and S, respectively, for the duration of the study. This study demonstrates that traditional processing of landjäger may result in a ca. 5 log reduction of foodborne pathogens. Fermentation and drying alone did not result in a 5 log reduction in pathogens. |
| Roering AM, Wierzba RK, Ihnot AM, Luchansky JB (1998) Pasteurization of vacuum-sealed packages of summer sausage inoculated with Listeria monocytogenes. Journal of Food Safety 18 (1):49-56. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Summer sausage | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Pasteurization in hot water after packaging) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Pasteurization time: 0 to 240 sec Temperature: Pasteurization temperature: 66 to 99°C (water bath temperature) Spatial Configuration: Whole summer sausage chubs weighing about 225 each Other: Sausage chubs were surface inoculated and vacuum packaged. | Time: Pasteurization time Temperature: Water bath temperature | This study tested how well pasteurization for different lengths of time at different water bath temperatures reduced L. monocytogenes inoculated on the surface of packaged summer sausage. Post-processing pasteurization of the summer sausage under the following conditions resulted in a 3-log decrease in L. monocytogenes levels: · 77°C for >150 sec · 88°C for >90sec · 99°C for >60 sec |
| Sansawat, T., Zhang, L., Jeong, J. Y., Xu, Y. Y., Hessell, G., Ryser, E. T., Harte, J. B., Tempelman, R., and Kang, I. 2013. Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in Full- and Low-Sodium Frankfurters at 4, 7, or 10 degrees C Using Spray-Dried Mixtures of Organic Acid Salts. J. Food Prot. 76:1557. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Full- and low-sodium frankfurters | Beef and pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Spray-dried powders of SL+SA, SL+SA+SD, and PA+PD or liquids of SL, SL+SD, PL, or PL+SD SL=sodium lactate SA=sodium acetate SD=sodium diacetate PA=potassium acetate PD=Potassium diacetate PL=Potassium lactate | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Storage time: up to 90 days Temperature: Storage temperatures: 4, 7, and 10°C Concentration: · NaCl: 1 or 1.8% in formulation · Curing salt (6.25% nitrite): 0.18% · Sodium erythorbate: 3.5% · Sodium lactate (powdered): 0.25 to 0.5% · Sodium acetate (powdered): 0.25 to 0.5% · Sodium diacetate (powdered): 0.16% · Potassium acetate (powdered): 0.6 to 0.8% · Potassium diacetate (powdered): 0.15 to 0.2% · Sodium lactate (liquid): 1.5% · Sodium diacetate (liquid): 0.1% · Potassium lactate: 1.4 to 1.5% Water Activity: 0.949 to 0.956 pH: 6.21 to 6.41 Product Coverage: All antimicrobials (liquid or powdered) were added to the formulation Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters were made in 24 mm cellulose casings with 9-10 cm long lengths prior to cooking Other: · Full-sodium frankfurters had 1.8% NaCl · Low-sodium frankfurters had 1.0% NaCl | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: · Sodium chloride · Concentrations of SL, SA, SD, PD, PA, and PL | Four powder* and two liquid** full-sodium formulations and one powder low sodium formulation, all of which contained diacetate except for 1% sodium lactate–sodium acetate powder, completely inhibited Listeria growth at 4°C. However, Listeria grew in full-sodium formulations at 10°C and in low-sodium formulations at 7 and 10°C except for the formulation containing 0.8% potassium acetate–0.2% potassium diacetate powder. All formulations were similar in terms of water activity, cooking yield, moisture, and protein content. Sodium content and pH were affected by the concentrations of sodium and diacetate, respectively. In this study, two low sodium frankfurter formulations containing powdered inhibitors (PI-3 and PI-5) had similar or greater antilisterial activity than did those containing liquid inhibitors, including 2.5% PL plus SD, when stored at 4, 7, or 10uC for 90 days. Strong inhibition of Listeria and MAB was achieved using PA and PD regardless of storage time and temperature. Compared with the low-sodium CTR, the powder-based formulation containing 0.2% PD (PI-5) was similar in appearance and texture but had lower scores for flavor and overall acceptability. Given these findings, powdered organic salt bacterial inhibitors based on PA and PD should provide an attractive alternative to liquid inhibitors for both full- and low-sodium frankfurters. |
| Sheen, S., Cassidy, J., Scullen, B., Uknalis, J., and Sommers, C. 2015. Inactivation of Salmonella spp. in ground chicken using high pressure processing. Food Contr. 57:41. | Raw | Ground chicken (95% lean) | Chicken | Salmonella spp. | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: HPP time: 5 to 15 min per cycle Storage time: 8-9 days Temperature: Initial temperature of meat: 4°C HPP temperature: 6 to 10°C; a maximum temperature of 28°C was reached during multiple cycles at 450 MPa Storage temperature: 10°C Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples of ground chicken were mixed with 0.1 mL of inoculum and sealed in packages for HPP treatment Pressure: 250 to 550 MPa HPP pressure come-up rate: 100 MPa/15 sec Equipment Settings: Other: HPP cycles: up to 3 cycles | Time: HPP time Storage time Pressure: HPP pressure Other: Number of HPP cycles | In this study the inactivation of a five-isolate cocktail of Salmonella spp. in ground chicken (95% lean) using HPP at refrigeration temperature(4-6 C) was studied. More than 5-log CFU/g inactivation was achieved at 450 MPa for10 min. In contrast, HPP treatment at 250 MPa or 350 MPa (single-cycle, 15 min) inactivated 0.5 log or 1.7 log CFU/g, respectively. The multiple-cycle HPP mode at 250 or 350 MPa (3-cycle with 5 min/cycle) showed higher cell reduction at 1.3 or 3.3 log CFU/g, respectively. HPP at 550 MPa for 10 min may reduce the cell counts, initially at 8.5 log CFU/g, to below the detection limit (1.0 log CFU/g) in current study. During mildly abusive storage, none of the treatments completely prevented regrowth of Salmonella (even those that resulted in initial Salmonella levels that were below the level of detection). |
| Shigehisa T, Kozaki S, Sakaguchi G (1984) Toxin production by Clostridium botulinum type-A and type-B in unpasteurized cured meat-products held at 15 degrees C and 27 degrees C. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science 46 (6):917-920. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Unpasteurized hams | Pork | Clostridium botulinum Types A and B | Antimicrobials (Salt, sodium nitrite) | Prevention of toxin production Temperature control (Cooling) | Time: · Curing time: 10 days · Smoking/drying time: 60 hr · Storage time: up to 56 days Temperature: · Curing temperature: 3 to 4°C · Smoking/drying temperature: 20°C · Storage temperature: 15 or 27°C Concentration: · Sodium nitrite: 0.02% based on green weight · Sodium chloride: 3 or 6% based on green weight Humidity: Smoking/drying humidity: 85% RH Water Activity: 0.94 to 0.97 pH: 5.73 to 5.76 Other: · Curing was done as a dry cure · Moisture content of final ham: 68.60 or 69.24% · Residual nitrite: 6.6 to 7.6 ppm · NaCl content: 3.29% or 5.18% (final) | Time: · Storage time Temperature: · Storage temperature Concentration: · Sodium chloride concentration · Sodium nitrite concentration | This study tested whether dry cured hams made with two different ingoing salt concentrations plus sodium nitrite at 0.02% could support C. botulinum toxin (Type A and Type B) production during 56 days of storage at 15°C or 27°C. No toxin was produced for either of the two formulations during 56 days of storage at 15°C. The ham made with the higher salt concentration (6%) also did not result in any toxin production at the higher storage temperature (27°C); however, the ham made with 3% salt did show type A toxin production at day 14. |
| Shigehisa T, Yamada R, Taji S, Shinagawa K, Sakaguchi G (1985) The bacteriological safety of unpasteurized cured meat products in response to the manufacturing processes. Nihon juigaku zasshi The Japanese journal of veterinary science 47 (3):443-452. | NHT/SS | Unpasteurized cured hams, mean weight 1.5 kg | Pork | E. coli Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (Salt, sodium nitrite) Temperature control (storage temperature, smoking temperature) | Pathogen reduction Prevention of toxin production | Time: · Total cure time: 65 days; 10 days for some studies · Smoking time: 10-60 hours for cool smoking; up to 20 hours for warm smoking. Curing time before smoking was 10 hours. Temperature: · Curing temperature: 3 to 4°C · Smoking temperature: 25 to 30°C (cool smoking) or 45 to 55°C (warm smoking) · Storage temperature: 15 or 27°C Concentration: On basis of fresh weight: · Salt: 3 to 8% · Sodium nitrite: 0.02% Humidity: 90% for cool smoking, 70% for warm smoking Water Activity: 0.90 to 0.97 after 45 days of curing Product Coverage: · Cure was applied as a dry cure · Pathogens were inoculated either externally or internally Spatial Configuration: Enterotoxin production was measured on ham slices Other: · Moisture: 63.3 to 70.3% after 45 days of curing · NaCl: 2.5 to 7.9% after 45 days of curing · Residual nitrite: 18.9 to 96.2 mg/kg after 45 days of curing | Pathogen reduction Time: · Storage time · Smoking time Temperature: · Storage temperature · Smoking temperature Concentration: (Salt and nitrite, although study did not demonstrate this explicitly) Prevention of toxin production Time Temperature Concentration: Salt | Similar reductions in Salmonella spp. (and E. coli) were observed (1-2 log over a 65-day cure period) for all salt levels tested for both external and internally inoculated loins, but S. aureus was not inactivated during the dry cure no matter what salt concentration was used or how it was inoculated. Both internally or externally inoculated Salmonella (and E. coli) showed significant reductions in viability during cool smoking and most treatments eliminated externally inoculated Salmonella (and E. coli) within 40-60 hours. Cool smoking did not easily kill S. aureus, especially when internally inoculated, even after long periods of time (60 hours). With warm smoking, externally inoculated Salmonella was killed faster (15 to 20 hours); 1-2 log reductions were obtained for S. aureus, but it was not eliminated. Lower salt (3%) ham slices stored at 27°C allowed some S. aureus enterotoxin to form after 2 days of storage, while 15°C storage allowed S. aureus growth but no enterotoxin production. Higher salt (6%) retarded but did not completely prevent enterotoxin production at 27°C; at 15°C, neither S. aureus growth nor enterotoxin production was observed. |
| Sofos JN, Busta FF, Allen CE (1979) Effects of sodium nitrite on Clostridium botulinum toxin production in frankfurter emulsions formulated with meat and soy proteins. Journal of Food Science 44 (5):1267-1271. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Beef and pork frankfurters with added soy proteins, soy flours, soy concentrates, and soy isolates | Beef and pork | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite) | Prevention of toxin formation | Time: Storage up to 35 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: · Salt: 2.5% · Sucrose: 1% · Ascorbic acid: 0.04% · Liquid smoke: 0.5% · Nitrite: 0 or 156 mg/g Humidity: NR Dwell Time: NR Water Activity: NR pH: Frankfurter pH varied depending on type of soy protein used in formulations, ranging from 4.64 to 6.55 Contact Time: NR Product Coverage: Nitrite was in formulation Spatial Configuration: NR Pressure: NR Equipment Settings: NR Other: Moisture content of all formulations: 53-54% | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium nitrite Other: Type of soy product used in formulation (textured, flours, concentrates, vs. isolates) | Sodium nitrite delayed the onset of toxin formation in the all meat, meat-soy (textured soy proteins, soy flours, or soy concentrates), and all soy (textured soy proteins, soy flours, or soy concentrates) frankfurters relative to nitrite-free formulations. Replacement of lean meat proteins with soy resulted in products that at least as safe as all-meat formulations in terms of toxin formulation. However, in formulations that contained soy isolates (as opposed to textured soy protein, soy flour, or soy concentrates) and pork backfat, nitrite was not effective at controlling C. botulinum toxin formation. |
| Sofos JN, Busta FF, Bhothipaksa K, Allen CE, Robach MC, Paquette MW (1980) Effects of various concentrations of sodium-nitrite and potassium sorbate on Clostridium botulinum toxin production in commercially prepared bacon. Journal of Food Science 45 (5):1285-1292. | NFC/NSS | Bacon | Pork | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite, potassium sorbate) | Prevention of toxin formulation | Time: Storage time: 60 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 25 to 29°C Concentration (in formulation): · Sodium nitrite: 40 to 120 ppm · Potassium sorbate: 0.26% Humidity: NR Dwell Time: NR Water Activity: NR pH: · At inoculation: 6.5 to 7.0 · Days 46 or 53: ~5.0 · Day 60: ~6.0 Contact Time: NR Product Coverage: Nitrite was in formulation Spatial Configuration: NR Pressure: NR Equipment Settings: NR Other: Inoculated bacon strips were vacuum packaged for storage | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: ≥40 ppm nitrite, 0.26% sorbate in formulation | Nitrite or sorbate alone extended the time until toxin formation, but a combination further increased the time until toxin formation. After 60 days, no samples with 80 ppm nitrite and 0.26% sorbate became toxic, while 0.4% became toxic with 120 ppm nitrite. In contrast, 90% of control samples without nitrite or sorbate were toxic at 60 days. USDA does not currently allow potassium sorbate in bacon (9 CFR Part 318.7) |
| Sofos, J. N., Busta, F. F., and Allen, C. E. 1979. Clostridium botulinum control by sodium nitrite and sorbic acid in various meat and soy protein formulations. J. Food Sci. 44:1662. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Chicken, beef, or pork frankfurter-type emulsions, some containing soy | Chicken Beef Pork | Clostridium botulinum Type A and Type B | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid) | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: · Heat treatment: ~2 hours · Storage time: Up to 52 days Temperature: · Heat treatment: to a final internal temperature of 68.5°C in a 80°C oven · Cooling: immersion in cold tap water, temperature not specified · Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: Sodium chloride: 2.5% Ascorbic acid: 0.05% Liquid smoke: 0.5% Sodium nitrite: 80 or 156 mg/g Sorbic acid: 0.2% pH: 5.77 to 5.98 (formulations were adjusted with phosphate solutions) Product Coverage: Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid was added along with the spore inoculum to the mechanically deboned chicken meat and other ingredients and mixed for 5 minutes, then emulsified. Spatial Configuration: Emulsions were extruded into 18 x 150 mm test tubes prior to heat processing. Other: Fat content of frankfurters: Chicken: 20% Meat and soy blends: 20% Pork or beef: 30% | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid concentrations Other: Type of meat | Sorbic acid alone (0.2%) or in combination with nitrite (80 pg/g) retarded spore ger- mination and outgrowth, and delayed toxin production. These effects were of larger magnitude in mixtures formulated with both nitrite and sorbic acid and were greater in beef, pork, and soy proteins compared to mechanically deboned chicken meat. Nitrite (80 mg) alone was only slightly effective in delaying toxin production and of significance only in pork. The highest nitrite level (156 mg/g)) tested in a meat-soy mixture was significantly inhibitory to toxin development. Botulinal germination, outgrowth, and toxin production were slower in all-soy, control (nitrite/sorbic acid-free) formulations than in all-meat, control samples. |
| Sofos, J. N., Busta, F. F., and Allen, C. E. 1979. Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid effects on Clostridium botulinum spore germination and total microbial growth in chicken frankfurter emulsions during temperature abuse. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37:1103. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Chicken frankfurter-type emulsions | Chicken | Clostridium botulinum Type A and Type B | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid) | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: · Heat treatment: ~2 hours · Storage time: Up to 38 days Temperature: · Heat treatment: to a final internal temperature of 68.5°C in a 80°C oven · Cooling: immersion in cold tap water, temperature not specified · Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 2.5% · Ascorbic acid: 0.05% · Liquid smoke: 0.5% · Sodium nitrite: 20, 40, and 156 mg/g · Sorbic acid: 0.1 and 0.2% Product Coverage: Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid was added along with the spore inoculum to the mechanically deboned chicken meat and other ingredients and mixed for 5 minutes, then emulsified. Spatial Configuration: Emulsions were extruded into 18 x 150 mm test tubes prior to heat processing. | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid concentrations | The spores germinated within 3 days in both control and nitrite (20, 40, and 156 mg/g) treatments. Sorbic acid (0.2%) alone or in combination with nitrite (20, 40, and 156 mg/g) significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited spore germination. No significant germination was recorded until toxic samples were detected. A much longer incubation period was necessary for toxin to be formed in nitrite-sorbic acid combination treatments as contrasted with controls or nitrite and sorbic acid used individually. Total growth was not affected by the presence of nitrite, whereas sorbic acid appeared to depress it. |
| Sofos, J. N., Busta, F. F., Bhothipaksa, K., and Allen, C. E. 1979. Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid effects on Clostridium botulinum toxin formation in chicken frankfurter-type emulsions. J. Food Sci. 44:668. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Chicken frankfurter-type emulsions | Chicken | Clostridium botulinum Type A and Type B | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid) | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: · Heat treatment: ~2 hours · Storage time: Up to 38 days Temperature: · Heat treatment: to a final internal temperature of 68.5°C in a 80°C oven · Cooling: immersion in cold tap water, temperature not specified · Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: · Sodium nitrite: 20, 40, and 156 mg/g · Sorbic acid: 0.1 and 0.2% pH: 5.8 to 6.4 (sorbic acid containing formulations were lower) Product Coverage: Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid was added along with the spore inoculum to the mechanically deboned chicken meat and other ingredients and mixed for 5 minutes, then emulsified. Spatial Configuration: Emulsions were extruded into 18 x 150 mm test tubes prior to heat processing. | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid concentrations | Without nitrite or sorbic acid, chicken emulsions inoculated with C. botulinum become toxic within 2 days when stored at 27°C. Low nitrite concentrations (20 and 40 mg/g), did not influence C botulinum growth and toxin production. The addition of sorbic acid (0.2%) to these nitrite levels resulted in a significant extension of the time necessary for toxin to develop. The 0.1% sorbic acid level was ineffective. Nitrite concentrations of 156 mg/g doubled the time necessary, for botulinal toxin production, as did 0.2% sorbic acid alone. The magnitude of toxin production delay was increased five-fold when 156 mg/g nitrite and 0.2% sorbic acid were combined. |
| Sommers C, Huang C-Y, Sheen L-Y, Sheen S, Huang L (2018) Growth modeling of uropathogenic Escherichia coli in ground chicken meat. Food Control 86:397-402. | Other (fresh meat) | Ground chicken from skinless breasts | Chicken | Extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli | Temperature control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 120 hours Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 to 30°C | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature | This study looked at the growth of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) in raw ground chicken at various temperatures over a 5-day period. This data was then used to create a model. No growth was observed during 5-days storage at 4°C. Lag times and growth rates were measured. Lag times were very short at 30°C. ExPEC growth rates were similar to generic E. coli growth rates found in other studies. At low temperatures, ExPEC lag times were shorter than for generic E. coli. However, ExPec lag times were longer than those for generic E. coli at ≥15°C. |
| Sommers C, Mackay W, Geveke D, Lemmenes B, Pulsfus S (2012) Inactivation of Listeria innocua on frankfurters by flash pasteurization and lauric arginate ester. Journal of Food Processing and Technology 3 (3):147. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Frankfurters | Beef | Listeria innocua | Antimicrobials (lauric arginate ester [LAE] applied immediately on surface immediately prior to sealing) Temperature control (Post-processing flash pasteurization [FP] immediately before packaging) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Flash pasteurization: 1.5 sec · Storage time: 12 weeks Temperature: · Flash pasteurization: 120°C · Storage temperature: 10°C Concentration: · Sodium nitrite (concentration not specified) · LAE (5%) was mixed in a commercial product called Cytoguard-STAT-N, which contained a mixture of bacterial growth inhibitors Product Coverage: LAE remained in bag with frankfurters throughout the storage period. Spatial Configuration: Flash pasteurization was performed as a single layer of 4 frankfurters Other: · Frankfurters contained 25% fat · LAE/Cytoguard volume was 3.3 mL; it was applied to 4 frankfurters after flash pasteurization within a polynylon bag, then vacuum sealed for storage. | Time: · Flash pasteurization time · Storage time Temperature: · Flash pasteurization temperature · Storage temperature Concentration: LAE | This study investigated whether a combination of two post-processing interventions (flash pasteurization and topical lauric arginate) could control surface-inoculated L.. innocua during 12 weeks of storage at 10°C. FP alone reduced L. innocua levels by 2.5 log CFU/g initially; however, the bacteria recovered by 2 weeks of storage and levels increased to match untreated control levels. Similarly, LAE alone resulted in an initial 2.1 CFU/g drop relative to untreated controls, but after about 6 weeks, levels increased and at 12 weeks were the same as the untreated control. However, the combination of both FP and LAE treatment resulted in a 3.1 log reduction in L. innocua levels which was maintained throughout the 12-week storage period. |
| Sommers CH, Geveke DJ, Fan X (2008) Inactivation of Listeria innocua on frankfurters that contain potassium lactate and sodium diacetate by flash pasteurization. Journal of Food Science 73 (2):M72-M74. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Beef and pork frankfurters | Beef and pork | Listeria innocua | Antimicrobials (sodium diacetate and potassium lactate) Temperature control (Flash [steam] pasteurization [FP] just before packaging) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · FP time: 1.5 or 3.0 sec. · Storage time: 8 weeks Temperature: · FP steam temperature: 121°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: All frankfurters contained sodium diacetate (0.07%), potassium lactate (1.13%), and salt, sodium nitrite, and sodium erythorbate at unspecified levels Spatial Configuration: Single layers of frankfurters were treated by FP Other: · 25% fat in frankfurters · For storage study, frankfurters were vacuum packaged after FP | For pathogen reduction: Time: FP time Temperature: FP steam temperature For inhibition of growth during storage: Time: Storage time Concentration: Sodium diacetate and potassium lactate (for frankfurters that were not treated by FP) | This study tested the ability of pre-packaging flash (steam) pasteurization, in combination with sodium diacetate and potassium lactate in the formulation, to reduce L. innocua levels and to prevent growth of the surrogate organism during refrigerated storage. FP for 3 sec at 121°C reduced L. innocua by 2.5 to 2.7 log on frankfurters containing sodium diacetate and potassium lactate. A shorter FP time (1.5 sec) resulted in smaller reductions (1.97 to 2.07 log) The inoculum level did not affect reductions of L. innocua after FP. L. innocua levels decreased 0.5 log further upon 8 weeks storage at 4°C, while no changes in L. innocua levels were observed during similar storage of FP-treated frankfurters (levels began and ended storage at ~0 CFU/g) |
| Sommers CH, Geveke DJ, Pulsfus S, Lemmenes B (2009) Inactivation of Listeria innocua on Frankfurters by Ultraviolet Light and Flash Pasteurization. Journal of Food Science 74 (3):M138-M141. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Beef and pork frankfurters | Beef and pork | Listeria innocua | Antimicrobials (sodium diacetate and potassium lactate) Temperature control (Flash [steam] pasteurization [FP] just before packaging) Ultraviolet C light irradiation | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · FP time: 0.5, 1.5 or 3.0 sec. · Storage time: 8 weeks Temperature: · FP steam temperature: 121°C · Storage temperature: 7 to 8°C Concentration: All frankfurters contained sodium diacetate (0.07%), potassium lactate (1.13%), and salt, sodium nitrite, and sodium erythorbate at unspecified levels Spatial Configuration: · Single layers of frankfurters were treated by UV light and by FP · Frankfurters were placed a platform 20 cm below UV bulbs · Frankfurters were rotated 90° four times during UVC treatment Equipment Settings: See paper for more details on UVC irradiation treatment; doses delivered were 0 to 4 J/cm2. Other: · 25% fat in frankfurters · For storage study, frankfurters were vacuum packaged after FP | For pathogen reduction: Time: FP time Temperature: FP steam temperature Other: UVC light dose For inhibition of growth during storage: Time: FP time Temperature: FP steam temperature Concentration: Sodium diacetate and potassium lactate (for frankfurters that were not treated by UVC and FP) Other: UVC light dose | This study tested the ability of flash (steam) pasteurization followed immediately by UV-C light treatment to reduce levels of L. innocua present on the surface of frankfurters formulated with sodium diacetate and potassium lactate. The study also investigated how well these treatments inhibited the growth of L. innocua during 8 weeks of storage at 7-8°C. FP alone resulted in 1.97 to 2.51 log reductions in L. innocua levels depending on FP time. UV alone resulted in 1.47 to 1.53 log reductions in L. innocua levels, with similar reductions obtained at all doses tested. UVC followed by FP resulted in 3.19 to 3.89 log reductions in L. innocua, suggesting an additive effect of the two treatments. UVC followed by FP also prevented growth of L. innocua (those that survived the initial treatment) during 8 weeks of storage at 7-8°C. Similar results were obtained for 1 J/cm2: 1.5 sec FP and for 2 J/cm2: 3 s |
| Sommers CH, Scullen OJ, Sites JE (2010) Inactivation of foodborne pathogens on frankfurters using ultraviolet light and GRAS antimicrobials. Journal of Food Safety 30 (3):666-678. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Frankfurters | Beef and pork and turkey | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate [PL], sodium diacetate [SD], and lauric arginate ester [LAE]) Ultraviolet light (UV-C at 254 nm) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · UV exposure: 100 sec · LAE application time: 1 sec · Storage time: Up to 12 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 10°C Concentration: · PL: 1.13% in formulation · SD: 0.07% in formulation · LAE: 5% solution applied after UV-C light treatment · Sodium nitrite (concentration not specified) Product Coverage: LAE solution remained in package during storage Equipment Settings: See paper for details on UV-C exposure. Other: · UV-C total dose: 0.5J/cm2 · Frankfurters contained 25% fat · Frankfurters were vacuum packaged prior to storage | Time: UV exposure Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: LAE solution Other: UV-C total dose | This study tested ultraviolet light, in combination with other antimicrobials, as a post-process intervention, for reducing surface-inoculated pathogen numbers on frankfurters. All experiments had PL and SD in the formulation of the frankfurters. UV light reduced each pathogen by >1.5 log immediately after treatment. LAE treatment alone resulted in a similar reduction of each pathogen. UV-C light, when used in combination with the three antimicrobials, inactivated 2.32–2.80 log of the pathogens, which was more effective than either process used individually as determined by analysis of variance (n=6,P<0.05). During 12 weeks of refrigerated storage (10°C), the use of UV-C in combination with the 3 antimicrobials was found to be very effective, with 3.6–4.1 log of the three pathogens being inactivated by the end of the storage period. No advantage was noted for a 10% LAE solution over a 5% solution. UV-C did not alter color of texture of frankfurters. |
| Sommers, C., and Fan, X. T. 2003. Gamma irradiation of fine-emulsion sausage containing sodium diacetate. J. Food Prot. 66:819. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Fine-emulsion bologna and frankfurters | Beef | L. monocytogenes | Irradiation (Gamma irradiation) Antimicrobials (Sodium diacetate) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 4 weeks Temperature: · Temperature during irradiation: 4°C · Storage temperature: 9°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 3% · Dextrose: 3% · Sodium tripolyphosphate: 0.5% · Sodium erythorbate: 0.05% · Sodium nitrite: 0.02% · Sodium diacetate (SDA): 0.125 to 0.5% pH: For bologna: 6.7 to 5.9 depending on SDA levels (higher SDA resulted in lower pH values) Product Coverage: · For bologna, SDA was incorporated in the sausage emulsion · For frankfurters, SDA was applied to the surface as a dip. Spatial Configuration: · Frankfurters were made in 22 mm cellulose casings · Bologna was made in 10 cm vigorous casings · L. monocytogenes was either incorporated in the emulsion (bologna) or on the surface (frankfurters). · Inoculated bologna (5g aliquots) were vacuum packaged to 0.5 mm Hg. Equipment Settings: · Irradiation was perfumed using a 137Cs radiation source consisting of 23 individually sealed source pencils in an annular array. · Dose rate: 0.096 kGy/min · Doses: 0 to 3.0 kGy Other: Ground beef used was 15% fat | Time: Storage time Concentration: Sodium diacetate concentration Radiation: Gamma irradiation dose | This study tested the ability of irradiation combined with sodium diacetate (in the formulation of bologna or applied on the surface of frankfurters) to reduce levels of L. monocytogenes on or in the meat products and to prevent growth during storage. …the D10-values (the ionizing radiation doses required to reduce the population by 90%) were 0.58, 0.59, 0.57, and 0.53 kGy for L. monocytogenes populations suspended in [bologna] emulsions containing 0, 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5% SDA, respectively. The D10-values for L. monocytogenes surface inoculated onto frankfurters dipped in 0, 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5% SDA solutions were 0.58, 0.53, 0.54, and 0.52 kGy, respectively. Postirradiation growth of L. monocytogenes suspended in beef bologna emulsion at 9°C was dependent on SDA concentration and ionizing radiation dose. Without irradiation, 0.25% SDA slowed L. monocytogenes growth during 9°C storage of frankfurters, while 0.5% SDA completely inhibited its growth. Irradiation was both bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal to L. monocytogenes. Note that irradiation is not allowed in RTE meat products in the U.S. at this time. The highest dose of SDA used in this study (0.5%) is also not permitted. |
| Stekelenburg, F. K. 2003. Enhanced inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in Frankfurter sausage by the addition of potassium lactate and sodium diacetate mixtures. Food Microbiol. 20:133. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Frankfurter-type sausages | Not specified | L. monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (potassium lactate, sodium diacetate) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 29 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · All frankfurter formulations contained sodium nitrite (2% Colorozo) and 0.2% sodium erythorbate · 1% sodium diacetate · 3% potassium lactate solution (60% potassium lactate) · 2 to 3% of a solution (56% potassium lactate and 4% sodium diacetate) Water Activity: 0.964 to 0.974 pH: 6.1 to 6.3 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were in the frankfurter formulation Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters were cut into small pieces, inoculated, and then minced and homogenized for 2 min, and divided into 40 g portions in plastic pouches Other: Moisture content: 63.0 to 63.9 Salt %: 2.04 to 2.11 Residual nitrite: 11 to 19 mg/kg | Time: Storage time Concentration: Sodium diacetate and potassium lactate | 2 to 3% of a solution containing 56% potassium lactate and 4% sodium acetate showed synergistic activity against L. monocytogenes in frankfurters during 29 days of storage at 4°C. |
| Stollewerk, K., Jofre, A., Comaposada, J., Arnau, J., and Garriga, M. 2012. The effect of NaCl-free processing and high pressure on the fate of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella on sliced smoked dry-cured ham. Meat Sci. 90:472. | NHT/SS | Sliced, smoked, dry-cured ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (NaCl vs. KCl plus potassium lactate) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: HPP come-up time: 3:50 min HPP time: 5 min Pressure release: almost immediate Storage time: up to 112 days Temperature: HPP temperature: 13°C Storage temperature:4 degrees for 38 days, then 8°C for a further 74 days Concentration: In ham with sodium chloride (S): 28 g/kg sodium chloride 0.24 g/kg sodum nitrite 0.15 g/kg potassium nitrate 0.5 g/kg sodium ascorbate (no starter culture) In ham with KCl plus lactate (F): 15.31 g/kg potassium chloride 33.83 g/kg potassium lactate 0.45 g/kg ascorbic acid 0.3 g/kg potassium nitrite 0.15 g/kg potassium nitrate (starter culture, lactose, and sucrose were present) Water Activity: S ham: 0.932 to .937 initially; 0.926 to 0.936 after storage F ham: 0.941 initially; 0.937 to 0.940 after storage pH: S ham: 5.75 to 5.84 initially; 5.80 to 5.87 after storage F ham: 5.95 to 6.13 initially; 5.79 to 6.12 after storage Product Coverage: salts were in formulation Spatial Configuration: Ham slices were 2 mm thick and weighed about 35 g/slice. They were inoculated on the surface of slices, and pairs of slices were vacuum packaged in plastic bags Pressure: 600 MPa Equipment Settings: An industrial HPP unit was used, with a chamber volume of 120 L | Time: · HPP time · Storage time Concentration: · Presence of NaCl vs. KCl plus potassium lactate Pressure: HPP pressure | Hams were processed with salt (S) or with no salt but the addition of potassium chloride and potassium lactate (F). Without pressurization, L. monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. persisted throughout the entire 112 storage period, although L. monocytogenes and Salmonella levels decreased faster in the S ham than in the F ham. Pressurization of the S ham resulted in the elimination of both L. monocytogenes and Salmonella after 14 days. In the F ham, L. monocytogenes was present until day 56, and Salmonella was present until day 28. |
| Stopforth, J. D., Visser, D., Zumbrink, R., van Dijk, L., and Bontenbal, E. W. 2010. Control of Listeria monocytogenes on cooked cured ham by formulation with a lactate-diacetate blend and surface treatment with lauric arginate. J. Food Prot. 73:552. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked, cured hams | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (potassium lactate/sodium diacetate blend in formulation [PLSD]; lauric arginate surface treatment (LAE]) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Storage time: up to 90 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · All hams contained 2.3% sodium chloride, 0.3% sodium tripolyphosphate, and 0.01% sodium nitrite. · Test antimicrobial concentrations: o Potassium lactate: 1.68% o Sodium diacetate: 0.12% o Lauric arginate: 0.07% (0.5 g of a 10% solution) Water Activity: 0.965 for ham formulated with PLSD; 0.974 for control ham pH: 6.23 for ham formulated with PLSD; 6.27 for control ham Product Coverage: LAE was sprayed on hams in bags and distributed across the meat surface during vacuum packaging Spatial Configuration: Hams were sliced into ~70 g pieces and placed in vacuum bags for inoculation (and then for some slices, LAE treatment) Other: Hams were vacuum packaged for storage | Time: Storage time Concentration: Potassium lactate/sodium diacetate in formulation; lauric arginate on surface | Use of only LAE as a surface treatment resulted in an initial 1-log CFU/g reduction in levels of L. monocytogenes on ham; however, this reduction only delayed the growth of the pathogen to 8 log CFU/g by 12 days when compared with the control ham without added antimicrobials. Use of PLSD in the formulation of ham resulted in a complete inhibition of L. monocytogenes throughout storage. The combination of PLSD in the formulation and a surface treatment with LAE resulted in an initial 0.7-log CFU/g reduction of the pathogen on ham and complete inhibition of the pathogen at the reduced level throughout storage. Formulation of ham with a lactate-diacetate blend combined with lauric arginate as a surface treatment will allow RTE meat processors to effectively achieve alternative 1 status, as designated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service, in their facilities. |
| Suarez, E. J. D., Espinosa, A. C., Pedroso, L., Suarez, O. R., Ramirez, E. I. Q., and Lozano, M. S. R. 2015. Hot water shrinkage as a post-lethal intervention against Listeria monocytogenes: Preliminary assessment in a turkey-based Virginia ham model. J. Food Saf. 35:145. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Commercial turkey-based cooked Virginia ham lacking a crusty surface layer | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Hot water shrinkage) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Equilibration time: 30 min after vacuum packaging prior to heat treatment · Water bath incubation time: 0 to 30 sec · Room temperature rest period after heat treatment: 5 min Temperature: · Equilibration temperature: 4°C · Water bath incubation temperature: 75 to 90°C · Maximum surface temperature of ham during 30 second heat treatments: 64.2 to 75.5°C · Surface temperature of ham after 5 minutes of room-temperature rest after heat treatment: <50°C Concentration: The formulation included liquid smoke, sodium nitrite, and sodium erythorbate in unspecified amounts. Spatial Configuration: Ham slices initially were 10 x 10 x 2 cm in size prior to surface inoculation and vacuum packaging Other: The ham contained (per 100 g) 12 g protein, 4.7 g fat, and 1.0 g sodium. | Time: Heat treatment time Temperature: · Water bath incubation temperature · Maximum surface temperature of ham Other: Surface of ham was smooth in this study, so L. monocytogenes was potentially more easily killed than if the ham surface had been irregular. | Reductions in L. monocytogenes were observed following water bath heat treatments for 30 sec: 75°C: 0.24 log reduction 80°C: 0.34 log reduction 85°C: 1.02 log reduction 90°C: 3.91 log reduction |
| Sullivan GA, Jackson-Davis AL, Niebuhr SE, Xi Y, Schrader KD, Sebranek JG, Dickson JS (2012) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes using natural antimicrobials in no-nitrate-or-nitrite-added ham. J Food Prot 75 (6):1071-1076. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite plus lactate-diacetate, natural nitrite, natural nitrate plus starter culture, a blend of cherry/lemon/vinegar powder, or a cultured sugar and vinegar blend) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Fermentation time in smokehouse: 2 hr (natural nitrate plus starter culture) · Time in smokehouse (conventional cured and natural nitrite products): 30 min · Storage time after inoculation: 0 to 35 days Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 42°C (natural nitrate plus starter culture) · Temperature in smokehouse prior to heat treatment (conventional cured and natural nitrite products): 42°C · Internal temperature during heat treatment: 73.9°C · Storage temperature: 0°C to 4°C Concentration: (in formulation) · Sodium nitrite: 156 ppm · Natural nitrite or nitrate: 68.1 g · Starter culture: 5 g · Lactate-diacetate: 570 g · Cherry/lemon/vinegar powder: 158.9 g · Cultured sugar and vinegar: 540 g Water Activity: 0.962 to 0.977 in finished product pH: 6.09 to 6.32 in finished product Contact Time: Antimicrobials were in formulation Spatial Configuration: 35 mm diameter, sliced before inoculation to 1.5 mm thickness Other: Vacuum packaged prior to storage | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials present | Natural curing methods together with antimicrobials inhibited L. monocytogenes growth similarly to traditional curing methods (<1 log growth), although at 35 days there appeared to be a trend towards greater growth compared to traditional curing. Truly uncured products and the natural nitrite alone showed greater growth (>2 log) than other formulations after day 14. |
| Sun S, Sullivan G, Stratton J, Bower C, Cavender G (2017) Effect of HPP treatment on the safety and quality of beef steak intended for sous vide cooking. LWT- Food Science and Technology 86:185-192. | Other (Fresh meat was studied, but intervention may be applicable to NHT/SS, HT/SS, FC/NSS, and NFC/NSS) | Beef steak intended for sous vide cooking | Beef | E. coli 0157:H7 | High-pressure processing Temperature control (Heat treatment, searing) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Searing time: 1 min/side · HPP time: 2 sec, 1, 3, 6, 10, or 15 min Temperature: · Meat was stored at 4°C prior to HPP treatment · HPP processing fluid was kept at 4°C prior to pressurization Water Activity: 0.99 prior to searing, after searing, and after HPP pH: · Before searing: 5.89 · After searing: 5.86 · After HPP: 5.85 to 5.95 Spatial Configuration: Steaks initially weighed ~ 85 g and were 2.54 cm thick Pressure: 450 or 600 MPa Other: · Steaks were internally inoculated with the pathogen · After inoculation, steaks were seared using a direct heat device · Samples were sealed in polypropylene vacuum pouches and stored at 4°C for up to 24 hours prior to HPP treatment | Time: HPP time Pressure: HPP pressure | Searing meat reduced E. coli O157:H7 levels by 0.5 log CFU/g. HPP treatment for 15 min at 450 MPa reduced E. coli O157:H7 levels by 4.74 log CFU/g, while higher pressure (600 MPa) resulted in greater reductions (6.13 log CFU/g) after 10 min. |
| Tanaka, N., Meske, L., Doyle, M. P., Traisman, E., Thayer, D. W., and Johnston, R. W. 1985. Plant trials of bacon made with lactic acid bacteria, sucrose and lowered sodium nitrite. Journal of Food Protection 48:679. | NFC/NSS | Bacon | Pork | Clostridium botulinum (Types A and B) inoculated as spores | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite, potassium sorbate) pH control (Fermentation with the lactic acid bacteria Pediococcus acidilactici) (The combination of reduced sodium nitrite, sucrose, and a culture of P. acidilactici to control C. botulinum toxin formation in bacon is known as the Wisconsin Process) | Inhibition of toxin production | Time: See paper for the smokehouse schedules used for the three different commercial facilities involved in the study. Storage time: up to 56 days Temperature: See paper for the smokehouse schedules used for the three different commercial facilities involved in the study. Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: Sodium nitrite: 40 to 120 ppm Sucrose: 0 to 0.7% Sodium ascorbate or sodium erythorbate: 550 ppm Sodium chloride: 1.38 to 2.0% (depending on facility) Phosphate: 0 to 0.33% (depending on facility) pH: Treatment A: 6.0 at day 3 Treatments B and C: 5.0 at day 3 Spatial Configuration:4 consecutive slices were taken from a 1-lb package and inoculated, hand-spread on surface, and rolled together for vacuum packaging in an oxygen-impermeable film. Other: P. acidilactici strain P02 was used for this commercial process; approximately 109 cells were added to the curing solution to obtain ~107 bacteria/g bacon after the smokehouse treatment Chemical analyses of bacon: See paper for details | Time: Storage time at abusive temperature Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium nitrite, sucrose pH: pH of product Other: Presence and level of P. acidilactici applied to bacon | Three bacon treatment combinations were each tested at three different commercial bacon production facilities: · Treatment A: 120 ppm sodium nitrite (control) · Treatment B: 80 ppm sodium nitrite, 0.7% sucrose, P. acidilactici · Treatment C: 40 ppm sodium nitrite, 0.7% sucrose, P. acidilactici Treatment A showed more toxic samples at earlier time points than did the other treatments. Treatments B and C were superior for antibotulinal protection of bacon. Fewer nitrosamines were formed using the Wisconsin processes (Treatments B and C) than the control process. P. acidilactici does not grow in bacon at 7°C, but will slowly metabolize sucrose to produce acid. |
| Tanaka, N., Traisman, E., Lee, M. H., Cassens, R. G., and Foster, E. M. 1980. Inhibition of botulinum toxin formation in bacon by acid development. J. Food Prot. 43:450. | NFC/NSS | Bacon | Pork | Clostridium botulinum (Types A and B) inoculated as spores | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite, potassium sorbate) pH control (Fermentation with the lactic acid bacteria L. plantarum) | Inhibition of toxin production | Time: · Pickling time: 22 hour · Draining time: 2 hours · Smoking time: 1.5 hours · Heat treatment: until an internal temperature of 55°C was reached · Chilling time: Overnight · Time after slicing before inoculation: <28 hours · Storage time: up to 8 weeks Temperature: · Pickling temperature: 2 to 4°C · Smoking temperature: 38°C · Heat treatment internal temperature of 55°C (in a chamber of 58°C) · Chilling temperature: · Storage temperature: 27°C (or 4°C for 3 weeks followed by 5 weeks at 27°C) Concentration: · Sodium ascorbate: 550 ppm · Sodium chloride: 1.5% · Sodium tripolyphosphate: 0.31% · Sucrose: 0 to 0.9% · Sodium nitrite: 80 to 120 ppm · (See paper for specifics on brining process) Humidity: Heat treatment humidity: 40% RH pH: 4.4 to 6.3 Spatial Configuration: 20 to 25 g slices were inoculated with C. botulinum spores (and in some cases, L. plantarum at the same time). Four slices were rolled together and vacuum packaged in an oxygen-impermeable film Other: L. plantarum was inoculated to the bacon surface along with the C. botulinum spores in some experiments. | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium nitrite, sucrose pH: pH of product Other: Presence of lactic acid bacteria | This study tested the ability of a reduced nitrite concentrations (≤120 ppm), alone or together with lactic acid bacteria and/or a fermentable sugar, to control C. botulinum growth in bacon during storage at an abusive temperature (27°C). We found that (a) sodium nitrite alone, at 120 ppm, did not give bacon extended protection against development of botulinum toxin if a fermentable carbon source (sucrose in these instances) was not present; (b) without added lactic acid bacteria, the effectiveness of 120 ppm of sodium nitrite plus sugar was variable and depended upon growth of naturally contaminating bacteria and (c) lactic acid bacteria with an adequate amount of sucrose gave good protection against development of botulinal toxin. Upon temperature abuse, acid was produced and growth of C botulinum was inhibited. The addition of potassium sorbate (at 0.26%) to reduced levels of nitrite (up to 120 ppm) delayed but did not prevent toxicity; the pH of this bacon remained high (6.0) and similar to the no-sorbate control. The fermentable sugar and the lactic acid bacteria should be present at adequate levels to drop the product pH and inhibit C. botulinum; the paper lists the pH values obtained for various formulations at different times as well as whether toxicity was present in samples. |
| Taormina, P. J., and Bartholomew, G. W. 2005. Validation of bacon processing conditions to verify control of Clostridium perfringens and Staphylococcus aureus. J. Food Prot. 68:1831. | NFC/NSS | Ground cured pork bellies and whole smoked bellies (bacon) | Pork | Clostridium perfringens (Spores and vegetative cells) Staphylococcus aureus | Temperature control (Cooling) Smoking (Using liquid smoke at levels which mimic the chemicals deposited on meat during actual smoking) | Inhibition of pathogen growth Prevention of toxin production | Time: · Smoking step: 6 hours · Cooling step: 3 to 15 hours · (see paper) from 48.9 to 7.2°C Temperature: · Peak temperature during processing (targeted): 48.9°C · Ground pork samples or pork belly pieces (after inoculation and smoke treatments) were placed in a 48.9°C water bath and cooled to 7.2°C over 15 hours; see paper for thermal profiles Concentration: · Raw bellies for ground pork system: o 12% (w/w) curing system contained sugar, sodium phosphate, sodium erythorbate, and sodium nitrite of unspecified concentrations. o Liquid smoke (0.63 mL added to 50 g ground pork, or 1.25%) was added to some samples · Whole pork bellies: o Raw cured pork bellies were obtained from commercial manufacturers. o After inoculation, concentrated liquid smoke was diluted to 75% strength and applied to the belly pieces by spraying to approximate natural smoking (see paper for details) Water Activity: 0.963 to 0.965 pH: · Liquid smoke pH: 2.2 to 2.8 · Cured ground bellies: 6.29 · Cured ground bellies with liquid smoke: 5.85 · Smoked whole belly pieces: 5.89 Product Coverage: Ground pork bellies: 0.5 mL inoculum was mixed with 50 g ground pork belly for 2 min. Spatial Configuration: · Ground pork bellies: 50 g ground pork samples were spread evenly to 5 mm thickness, 10 x 10 cm in width and length within a bag for cooking · Whole bellies: They were sliced into strips, and each strip was dived into several pieces weighing ~50 g (6 x 3 x 4 cm). Each piece was injected in three locations with inoculum and packaged into WhirlPak bags. Other: · Ground pork bellies (raw) for both sets of experiments were 49.5% moisture, 11.5% protein, 41.4% fat, 1.6% salt, and 2.9% brine concentration · Phenol in final products: Cured ground bellies plus liquid smoke: 5.05 mg/100g · Smoked whole belly pieces: 10.66 mg/100g | Time: Smoking and cooling time Temperature: Peak temperature during smoking Other: Smoking (use of liquid smoke to mimic the chemical found in meat after smoking) | This study investigated whether C. perfringens or S. aureus could grow during the cooling of bacon (which is only partially cooked during processing). The main conclusion was The use of a 15-hour cooling schedule from 48.9 to 7.2°C does not constitute a food safety hazard in bacon from either C. perfringens or S. aureus. The study tested both ground cured pork bellies and whole smoked bellies, with somewhat different results. Normal 3- hour cooling, ground: In ground cured pork bellies w/o liquid smoke: Slight increases in C. perfringens (<1 log) occurred during 3-hour cooling; smaller increases occurred when liquid smoke was present. S. aureus grew by 2.38 log in nonsmoked ground pork during normal smoking and 3 hour cooling times. S. aureus growth was much less (0.68 log increase) when liquid smoke was used. In ground cured pork bellies w/o liquid smoke, both C. perfringens and S. aureus increased by about 4 log during 15 hours of cooling. Liquid smoke inhibited C. perfringens growth but not S. aureus, and staphylococcus enterotoxin was detected in some samples without smoke but none with smoke. In whole belly pieces: In laboratory scale smoking of whole belly pieces, initial C. perfringens populations of 2.23 6 0.25 log CFU/g were reduced during smoking to 0.99 6 0.50 log CFU/g and were 0.65 6 0.21 log CFU/g after 15 h of cooling. Populations of S. aureus were reduced from 2.00 6 0.74 to a final concentration of 0.74 6 0.53 log CFU/g after cooling. Contrary to findings in the ground pork belly system, the 15-h cooling of whole belly pieces did not permit growth of either pathogen. Note that the levels of phenolics in the smoked products in this study (5.05 to 10.66 mg/100g) were significantly higher than those found in a plant-produced bacon (2.75 mg/100g), and smoke was important in reducing levels of both pathogens. |
| Taormina, P. J., and Dorsa, W. J. 2010. Survival and death of Listeria monocytogenes on cooked bacon at three storage temperatures. Food Microbiol. 27:667. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked bacon cubes, strips, and bits | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Water activity control Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Storage time: up to 25 weeks Temperature: · Storage temperature: -20, 4.4, and 22°C Water Activity: · Bacon cubes: 0.910 · Bacon strips: 0.726 · Bacon bits: 0.620 pH: 5.13 to 5.58 Spatial Configuration: · Bacon cubes: 1 cm3 · Bacon strips: thin strips, ~17 cm x 3 cm · Bacon bits: ~0.5 cm3 Other: · Inoculations were done at low levels (LI) of ~1 log CFU/g or high levels (HI) of ~5.5 log CFU/g on surface of cooked bacon · Bacon was vacuum packaged during storage · Fat: 31.1 to 42.38% · Moisture: 12.50 to 29.89% · Protein: 35.4 to 45.3% · Salt: 2.50 to 5.80% · Water-phase salt (WPS): 7.72 to 31.69 · Moisture protein (MP) ratio: 1.18:1 to 3.62:1 | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Water activity: <0.92 | Bacon cubes had the highest moisture, aw, and pH, and the lowest percent WPS and MP ratio, while bacon bits had the lowest moisture, aw, and pH, and the highest WPS and MP ratio. Bacon strips moisture, aw, pH, and WPS levels and MP ratio were in between the levels of cubes and bits. At -20 °C, a decline of about 1-log 10 CFU/g occurred on all HI cooked bacon types by 14 weeks, although most LI samples remained positive by the ELFA detection method for 25 weeks. At 4.4 and 22 °C, some strips and bits LI samples were negative for the pathogen [L. monocytogenes] within 3 weeks, and >1.5 log 10 CFU/g reductions occurred on HI strips and bits by 8 weeks. Reductions on cubes at refrigeration and ambient temperature were ca. 0.5 log 10 CFU/g, and cubes remained positive on LI samples for 25 weeks. Rate parameter estimates indicated that the population declined fastest on strips and bits at 22 °C compared to all other product and temperature combinations. This study demonstrates that cooked bacon does not support the growth of L. monocytogenes and that the pathogen gradually dies off during storage. Freezing bacon allowed L. monocytogenes to survive longer. |
| Teixeira, J. S., Repkova, L., Ganzle, M. G., and McMullen, L. M. 2018. Effect of Pressure, Reconstituted RTE Meat Microbiota, and Antimicrobials on Survival and Post-pressure Growth of Listeria monocytogenes on Ham. Frontiers in Microbiology 9:11. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Nisin, rosemary oil) High-pressure processing Other (Cocktail of RTE meat microbiota including Brochothrix thermosphacta, Canobacterium maltaromaticum, Leuconostoc gelidum, and Lactobacillus sakei) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · HPP time: 1 or 3 min Storage time: 4 weeks Temperature: · HPP temperature (initial): 5°C · Temperature increase during HPP treatment: <5°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Ham contained 3% NaCl · Rosemary extract: 3% (v/v) in ethanol to give a surface concentration of ~325 mg/cm2 · Nisin: 175 mg/L in 0.02 N HCl to give a surface concentration of ~ 2 mg/cm2 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were applied to the surface by adding to the Tygon tubing, heat-sealing the tubing, and then massaging Spatial Configuration: Cooked ham was cut into 20 mm thick slices with a surface area of 50 cm2, after inoculation on the surface, the ham was placed in Tygon tubing Pressure: 500 MPa Equipment Settings: A 2.2 mL high pressure vessel was used for the study Other: See paper for description of how the meat microbiota preparation was generated. | Time: · HPP time · Storage time Concentration: · Nisin · RTE meat microbiota Pressure: · HPP pressure | Pressure treatment reduced counts of Listeria by 1 to 2 log (CFU/g); inactivation of RTE meat microbiota was comparable. Counts of Listeria increased by 1–3 log (CFU/g) during refrigerated storage. RTE meat microbiota did not influence pressure inactivation of Listeria but prevented growth of Listeria during refrigerated storage. Rosemary extract did not influence bacterial inactivation or growth. The combination of nisin with pressure treatment for 3 min reduced counts of Listeria and meat microbiota by >5 log (CFU/g); after 4 weeks of storage, counts were below the detection limit. In conclusion, pressure alone does not eliminate Listeria or other microbiota on RTE ham; however, the presence of non-pathogenic microbiota prevents growth of Listeria on pressure treated ham and has a decisive influence on post-pressure survival and growth. |
| Thayer, D. W., Boyd, G., and Huhtanen, C. N. 1995. Effects of ionizing-radiation and anaerobic refrigerated storage on indigenous microflora, Salmonella, and Clostridium botulinum type-a and type-b in vacuum-canned, mechanically deboned chicken meat. J. Food Prot. 58:752. | Raw | Raw, mechanically deboned, vacuum-canned chicken meat | Chicken | Salmonella Clostridium botulinum types A and b (proteolytic) | Irradiation (gamma irradiation) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin formation | Time: Storage time: up to 4 weeks Temperature: Irradiation temperature: 5°C Storage temperature: 5°C or 28°C Spatial Configuration: 60 g samples were vacuum packed in 208 by 107 aluminum tab cans Equipment Settings: The gamma radiation source was a 137Cs source with 134,000 Ci and a dose rate of 0.114kGy/min Other: · Proximate analysis on the chicken meat: 12.6% protein, 22.0% fat, 66.7% water · Chicken was inoculated and vacuum packaged in cans with a nitrogen flush to 35 to 40 torr prior to irradiation Gamma irradiation doses: 0 to 3.0 kGy | Pathogen reduction Time: Storage time (anaerobic) Other: Irradiation dose Prevention of toxin formation Time: Storage time (anaerobic) Temperature: Storage temperature | Irradiation at relatively low doses could be an effective way to reduce spoilage organisms in canned foods; however, C. botulinum spores are very radiation resistant and would be expected to survive a radiation doses that might kill off spoilage organisms or non-spore pathogens. Pathogen reduction: Salmonella numbers decreased >1 log CFU/g over 4 weeks storage at 5°C; irradiation at 1.5 or 3.0 kGy resulted in no detectable Salmonella after 2 weeks or 0 weeks of storage, respectively. Toxin formation: No samples stored at 5°C developed botulinal toxin, however, when temperature abused at 28°C, they became toxic within 18 hours and had other signs of spoilage. |
| Theivendran, S., Hettiarachchy, N. S., and Johnson, M. G. 2006. Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by nisin combined with grape seed extract or green tea extract in soy protein film coated on turkey frankfurters. J. Food Sci. 71:M39. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Turkey frankfurters | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (grape seed extract, green tea extract, nisin within a soy protein coating) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: Up to 28 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 or 10°C Concentration: · Grape seed extract: 1% in the soy protein-film forming solution, coated at a levels of 1200 ppm per frankfurter cube · Green tea extract: 1% in the soy protein-film forming solution, coated at a levels of 1200 ppm per frankfurter cube · Nisin: 10,000 IU/mL in the soy protein-film forming solution, coated at a level of 1200 IU per frankfurter cube pH: Film-forming solutions: 5.5 to 6.5 Product Coverage: Surface of frankfurters Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters were diced into 1 x 1 x 1 cm cubes and packaged in Whirl-Pak bags, and irradiated prior to use. Other: · Full-fat turkey frankfurters were used (21% fat) See papers for details on soy film coating process | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Grape seed extract, green tea extract, and nisin | L. monocytogenes numbers were decreased by more than 2 logs (related to untreated controls) when frankfurters were coated with a soy protein film containing nisin (10,000 IU/mL in coating solution) and either grape seed or green tea extracts (at 1% in coating solution) following 28 days storage at either 4 or 10°C. At 4°C (but not 10°C), coatings containing nisin alone were also able to reduce the growth of L. monocytogenes by more than 2 logs during 28 days of storage. However, coatings containing either grape seed extract or green tea extract did not reduce listerial growth during storage at either temperature. The soy protein isolate film alone did not appear to inhibit listerial growth at either temperature. |
| Thippareddi, H., Juneja, V. K., Phebus, R. K., Marsden, J. L., and Kastner, C. L. 2003. Control of Clostridium perfringens germination and outgrowth by buffered sodium citrate during chilling of roast beef and injected pork. J. Food Prot. 66:376. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked roast beef Injected pork | Beef Pork | C. perfringens | Antimicrobials (Buffered sodium citrate, alone and with sodium diacetate) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Heat shock time: 20 min · Time to equilibrate to 54.5°C after heat shock: 10 min · Cooling time (54.4 to 7.2°C): 18 or 21 hours at an exponential rate Temperature: · Heat shock temperature: 75.5°C · Cooling temperatures: 54.4 to 7.2°C Concentration: · Injected brine for all products contained sodium chloride (0.85%) and potassium tetrapyrophosphate (0.2%) · Ional (buffered sodium citrate): at 0 to 2% · Ional Plus (buffered sodium citrate plus sodium diacetate): at 0 to 2% pH: · Roast beef: 5.62 to 5.78 · Injected pork: 5.98 to 6.11 Product Coverage: Ional and Ional Plus were mixed in ground raw meat prior to inoculation, heat shock, and cooling. Spatial Configuration: 10 g samples of roast beef or pork, placed in cook-in bags prior to heat shock Other: Samples in vacuum bags were vacuum sealed at 12 kPa | Time: Cooling time Concentration: Concentration of Ional or Ional Plus | The incorporation of Ional into the roast beef formulation resulted in C. perfringens population reductions of 0.98, 1.87, and 2.47 log10 CFU/g with 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% Ional, respectively, over 18 h of chilling, while 1.0% Ional Plus was required to achieve similar reductions (reductions of 0.91 and 2.07 log10 CFU/g were obtained with 1.0 and 2.0% Ional Plus, respectively). An Ional or Ional Plus concentration of 1.0% was required to reduce C. perfringens populations in roast beef or injected pork chilled from 54.4 to 7.2°C in 21 h. Cooling times for roast beef or injected pork products after heat processing can be extended to 21 h through the incorporation of 1.0% Ional or Ional Plus into the formulation to reduce the potential risk of C. perfringens germination and outgrowth. |
| Thompson, R. L., Carpenter, C. E., Martini, S., and Broadbent, J. R. 2008. Control of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat meats containing sodium levulinate, sodium lactate, or a combination of sodium lactate and sodium diacetate. J. Food Sci. 73:M239. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat turkey breast roll, bologna | Turkey Beef and pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (sodium levulinate, sodium lactate, sodium diacetate) | Inhibition of growth during storage | Time: Storage time: 0 to 12 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 3°C Concentration: Turkey breast contained 1.8% salt, 0.5% sodium tripolyphosphate in the formulation. Bologna contained 2.04% salt and 0.19% Prague powder number 1 in the formulation · Sodium levulinate: 1 to 3% (w/w) · Sodium lactate: 2% · Sodium lactate (1.875%) plus sodium diacetate (0.125%) Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were present in formulation Spatial Configuration: · Turkey roll and bologna were both made using 10 cm casings and sliced ~0.32 cm thick (about 25 g/slice) · 2 slices of RTE meat were placed in a vacuum bag, inoculated between the two sliced, and vacuum packaged for storage Other: Turkey breast was smoked; see paper for details. | Time: (Storage time) Concentration: Concentration of sodium levulinate, sodium lactate, sodium diacetate, and presence of salt and nitrite (in Prague powder) | Addition of 2% or more sodium levulinate to turkey roll and 1% or more sodium levulinate to bologna completely prevented growth of L. monocytogenes during 12 wk of refrigerated storage. Growth of L. monocytogenes in turkey roll was inhibited more by sodium levulinate, at any of the 3 levels tested, than by the addition of 2% sodium lactate, a current industry standard. In fact, sodium lactate alone was the least effective antimicrobial additive tested and did not meet the FSIS requirements as an additive to control the growth of L. monocytogenes in turkey roll. There was no growth of L. monocytogenes on bologna containing any of the antimicrobial treatments during the 12-wk study period. The different results between the turkey roll and the bologna was attributed to the presence of sodium nitrite and a higher salt concentration in the bologna. |
| Tittor, A. W., Tittor, M. G., Brashears, M. M., Brooks, J. C., Garmyn, A. J., and Miller, M. F. 2011. Effects of Simulated Dry and Wet Chilling and Aging of Beef Fat and Lean Tissues on the Reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella. J. Food Prot. 74:289. | Raw | Beef fat and lean tissues | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella | Wet or dry chilling and aging | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Time between inoculation and chilling and aging: 20 min · Wet chilling and aging: o 15 min continually spraying o 17 hours of being sprayed for 1 min every 17 min o Vacuum packaged after 48 hours o Stored up to 28 days following inoculation · Dry chilling and aging: up to 28 days Temperature: · Temperature of meat at harvest: 25 to 30°C · Temperature after inoculation before chilling and gaining: room temperature · Wet chilling spray temperature: 10°C · Wet chilling aging temperature: 3°C · Dry chilling storage temperature: 3°C Concentration: · Wet chilled samples were sprayed with water Humidity: · Dry chilling and aging relative humidity: 80% Product Coverage: · Samples were inoculated by dipping into a pathogen cocktail Spatial Configuration: 15 x 10 cm pieces Equipment Settings: · Spray equipment included PVC tubing with 36 nozzles (flow rate of 500 mL/min with a circular pattern; samples were suspended 30 cm from the nozzles. Other: · Fat was obtained from the area covering the deep pectoral muscle; lean tissue was removed from the Cutaneous omo-brachialis prior to application of postmortem antimicrobial interventions · Wet chilling and aging samples were vacuum packaged after 48 hours. · Dry chilling and aging samples were suspended in a cold rom with an air velocity of 0.25 m/s | Time: · Chilling and aging time Other: · Chilling and aging method · Fat or lean tissue | Beef fat and lean tissues were inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella and aged with either wet chilling or dry methods; levels of both pathogens were then measured over time. A large initial reduction of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella was observed, regardless of tissue type and chilling method. Fewer E. coli O157:H7 microorganisms were detected on wet chilled samples at 24 and 36 h; however, plate counts were higher from wet aged samples excised at 7 through 28 days. The final plate counts were 1.03 and 3.67 log CFU/cm2 for dry and wet aged samples, respectively. Fewer E. coli O157:H7 microorganisms were detected on fat samples from each sampling time, with the exception of 28 days, compared with lean samples. Similar trends were observed in the reduction of Salmonella for chilling or aging method and tissue type, resulting in final plate counts of 1.25 and 3.67 log CFU/cm2 for dry and wet aged samples, respectively. The findings reaffirmed wet or dry chilling and aging as potential interventions for small plants as a critical control point. |
| Tompkin, R. B. 1996. The significance of time-temperature to growth of foodborne pathogens during refrigeration at 40-50°F (Updated in 2007). Joint FSIS/FDA Conference on Time/Temperature, Washington, DC, November 18, 1996. | Raw | Raw meat | Not specified | Salmonella Pathogenic E. coli Listeria monocytogenes Yersinia enterocolitica Campylobacter jejuni Staphylococcus aureus Bacillus cereus ( psychrotrophic strains) Clostridium perfringens Clostridium botulinum (nonproteolytic and proteolytic strains) Parasites (Toxoplasma gondii, Taenia spp., and Trichinella spiralis) and viruses | Temperature control (Refrigeration) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: Temperature: | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature of ≤45°C | This summary document has been specifically mentioned by FSIS as being able to support a storage temperature CCP for raw meat of 45°C. See also https://askfsis.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/1601/~/tompkin-paper-and-storage-temperatures |
| Tompkin, R. B., Christiansen, L. N., Shaparis, A. B., and Bolin, H. 1974. Effect of potassium sorbate on Salmonellae, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, and Clostridium botulinum in cooked, uncured sausage. Appl. Microbiol. 28:262. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Skinless, cooked, uncured sausages | Beef and pork | Clostridium botulinum (inoculated as spores) Clostridium perfringens (inoculated as spores) Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (Potassium sorbate) | Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: · Cooking temperature: 71°C internally · Storage time at 27°C Temperature: · Storage temperature: 27°C · Storage time: up to 17 days Concentration: · All sausages had 1.75% sodium chloride in the formulation · Potassium sorbate was present at 0.1% (w/w) in the formulation of some sausages pH: · Cooked sausages: 6.2 Spatial Configuration: Sausage links had an average weight of 20 g each; they were stored 10 links/box Other: Fat content of uncooked links was 43% | Time: Storage time Concentration: Presence of potassium sorbate | Growth of Salmonellae was markedly retarded by sorbate. Growth of S. aureus was delayed 1 day in the presence of sorbate, after which growth occurred to the same level as in product without sorbate. C. perfringens declined to below detectable levels within the first day in product with and without sorbate. Sorbate retarded the growth of C. botulinum. Botulinal toxin was detected in 4 days in product without sorbate but not until after 10 days in product with sorbate. |
| Tuntivanich, V., Orta-Ramirez, A., Marks, B. P., Ryser, E. T., and Booren, A. M. 2008. Thermal inactivation of Salmonella in whole muscle and ground turkey breast. J. Food Prot. 71:2548. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Boneless, skinless, whole muscle and ground turkey breast | Turkey | Salmonella | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Marination time: 20 min Isothermal heating time: until internal temperature was within 0.5°C of the set point) Temperature: Marination temperature: 4°C Isothermal heating temperature: 55 to 63°C Concentration: Marinade for whole muscle turkey and ground turkey contained 3.2% (w/v) NaCl, 0.8% potassium phosphate Product Coverage: Salmonella was inoculated to the marinade added to the meat Spatial Configuration: · Whole muscle: plugs 5.0 to 7.0 cm long, 1.2 cm in diameter) · Ground turkey: ground through a 4 mm diameter plate Other: · Average marinade uptake was 14% in whole muscle cores; this same amount was added to the ground turkey Whole muscle and ground samples were packed into brass tubes (1.27 cm diameter, 10 cm long) and sealed before heating | Time: Cooking time Temperature: Isothermal cooking temperature Spatial configuration: whole muscle vs. ground | The rate of thermal inactivation of Salmonella in whole muscle turkey was less than in ground turkey. Internalization of Salmonella in whole-muscle product leads to enhanced thermal resistance. Similar results were observed in another study in pork: https://jfoodprotection.org/doi/abs/10.4315/0362-028X-73.2.372 |
| Tyopponen, S., Markkula, A., Petaja, E., Suihko, M. L., and Mattila-Sandholm, T. 2003. Survival of Listeria monocytogenes in North European type dry sausages fermented by bioprotective meat starter cultures. Food Contr. 14:181. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausages (North European style) | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Starter cultures | Pathogen reduction | Time: Fermentation/ripening process: · 1 day at 24°C, 93% RH, smoke for 30 min · 1 day at 22°C, 84% RH, smoke for 30 min · 1 day at 21°C, 82% RH, smoke for 30 min · 1 day at 20°C, 80% RH · 1 day at 19°C, 78% RH · 1 day at 18°C, 76% RH · Ripening for 3 weeks at 17°C, 75% RH Temperature: During fermentation and ripening: see above Concentration: Nitrite: 120 mg/kg in formulation NaCl: 1.6% Humidity: see above pH: At day 3 of fermentation: · 4.7 to 4.8 (Trial 1) · 4.9 to 5.1 (Trial 2) At end of ripening: · 5.0 to 5.2 (Trial 1) · 4.7 to 4.9 (Trials 2 and 3) Spatial Configuration: Sausages were 60 mm in diameter Other: Starter cultures used: · L. rhamnosus E-97800 · L. rhamnosus LC-705 · L. plantarum ALC01 · P. pentosaceus RM2000 (commercial starter used as control) All sausages also contained an S. carnosus starter culture) In the first trial, all sausages lost about 7% weight during the first 7 days of fermentation, while in the 2nd and 3rd trials, the weight losses were only 1-2%. | Time: Fermentation time pH: Sausage pH Other: Type of starter culture | Three trials were conducted in which sausages made using different starter cultures (one commercial, three experimental) were tested for their ability to reduce L. monocytogenes levels (inoculated at the time when starter cultures were added) during fermentation/ripening. In the first trial, the sausages unexpectedly had a slightly higher pH at the end of ripening (5.0 to 5.2). Sausages made with all cultures did not test negative for L. monocytogenes until Day 21. In the second and third trials, the experimental sausages had a slightly lower pH at the end of ripening (4.7 to 4.9), which is more in line with the expected pH for this type of sausage. Sausages made with the commercial started did not test negative for L. monocytogenes until Day 28. In contrast, the sausages made with all three of the experimental starter cultures were negative for L. monocytogenes by Day 7. |
| Uesugi, A. R., and Moraru, C. I. 2009. Reduction of Listeria on ready-to-eat sausages after exposure to a combination of pulsed light and nisin. J. Food Prot. 72:347. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat Vienna sausages | Chicken and beef and water | Listeria innocua | Antimicrobials (Nisin as a dip) Pulsed light Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage time of up to 60 days Temperature: Storage temperature 4°C Concentration: Sausages contained salt, mustard, and sodium nitrite among other seasonings Nisin solution (0.5% or 5000 IU/mL) pH: 5.7 Contact Time: 2 min in nisin solution, then dried for 15 min before inoculation Product Coverage: Nisin was applied as a dip Spatial Configuration: Skinless sausages, 20 mm in diameter and ~53 mm in length Equipment Settings: RS-3000C SteriPulse System was used for pulsed light treatments; each sample was centered on a shelf 50.8 mm below the lamp and treated with a variable number pulses (up to 9) at a frequency of 3 pulses/sec and a pulse width of 60 msec Other: · Sausages were patted dry before dipping in nisin solution · Light was shown to penetrate sausages up to 2.3 mm Treated sausages were packaged in Whirl-Pak bags for storage | Concentration: Nisin Time: Storage time Equipment settings: Delivery of pulsed light | Pulsed light (PL) alone immediately reduced L. innocua by 1.37 log CFU/sausage after exposure to 9.4 J/cm2 (9 pulses). Nisin alone resulted in an immediate reduction of L. innocua of 2.35 log CFU/sausage. Combining PL with nisin resulted in a significantly greater L. innocua reduction than either treatment alone, and this reduction seemed to increase upon refrigerated storage; a reduction >4 log CFU/sausage was seen with the above treatments given together followed by 48 hours of storage at 4°C. During refrigerated storage at 4°C, reductions of L. innocua of ~4-5 log CFU/sausage were maintained for about 28 days. The number of survivors reached the initial inoculum level after 12-28 days for sausages treated with nisin or PL alone and after about 40-60 days for the combined treatment. |
| Unda, J. R., Molins, R. A., and Walker, H. W. 1991. Clostridium sporogenes and Listeria monocytogenes - survival and inhibition in microwave-ready beef roasts containing selected antimicrobials. J. Food Sci. 56:198. | RTE/NSS | Cooked cook-in-bag brined beef roasts | Beef | Clostridium sporogenes Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment, refrigerated storage) Antimicrobials (Brines containing acetic acid, sodium lactate, potassium sorbate, glycerol monolaurin, phosphates) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Cook time: Until an internal temperature of 62.8°C (both cook times; some roasts were cooked once and others twice) or 80°C · Chill time (between cooks): overnight · Storage time: See below under Temperature Temperature: · Cook temperature: to a 62.8°C internal temperature in an 80°C water bath, or 30 to 5 min at 80°C · Chilling temperature: 2 to 4°C · Storage temperature: 2 to 25°C o Weeks 0-2 at 2 to 4°C o Weeks 3-4: 7°C in lighted case o Week 5: 10°C o (After week 2, some roasts were put at 25°C for 24 or 48 hours Concentration: In all brines: · Sodium chloride 10% In select brines: · Sodium tripolyphosphate 3% · Phosphate blend (Brifisol) 3% · Acetic acid 10% · Sodium lactate 20% · Lauralac (glyceryl monolaurin and lactic acid) 2.5% · Potassium sorbate 2.5% Product Coverage: Roasts were pumped to 110% of green weight Spatial Configuration: Roast sections of 500 g measuring about 19 x 5 x 8 cm Other: Inoculations were performed internally or externally Vacuum-packaged roasts were cooked in water baths | For Pathogen Reduction Temperature: · Cooking temperature and number of cooking cycles Concentration: Lactate, monolaurin in sodium chloride/phosphate brines, acetic acid in brine For Inhibition of Pathogen Growth during Storage: Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage time Concentration: Lactate, monolaurin in sodium chloride/phosphate brines | Beef roasts were pumped with brined contain various antimicrobials then cooked (once or twice) and storage at various temperatures to mimic retail and consumer storage conditions. Roasts were inoculated internally before cooking in some cases or surface inoculated before or after first cooking. Clostridia and listeriae survived one cooking when surface inoculated and two cookings in roasts inoculated internally. Lactate in brine afforded protection against clostridial survival and growth in temperature-abused roasts. Clostridia grew after 24 hr at 25°C in untreated roasts cooked once, and after 48 hr of abuse in most others except those with lactate or monolaurin. Listeria survival was reduced by lactate and monolaurin in recooked surface-inoculated roasts Listeria survived on roast surfaces heated to 80°C for 30 to 45 min. A second cooking cycle did not reduce Listeria levels on roasts. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. 2013. FSIS compliance guideline: Lebanon bologna. (accessed 26 April 2017). | NFC/NSS | Lebanon bologna | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella | Temperature control (Heat treatment) pH control (Fermentation) | Pathogen reduction | This document doesn’t not contain experimental data, but instead discusses the critical operational parameters associated with the manufacture of Lebanon bologna. | Time: · Come up time during low temperature heating step · Time to reach target pH (5.3) · Hold time for low temperature heating step Concentration: Type and use of starter cultures, product formulation Temperature: · Fermentation temperature · Low temperature heating step Humidity: Relative humidity during heating and intermediate heating steps pH Spatial configuration: · Diameter of casings · Permeability of casings Equipment: Type of smokehouse and oven | Meeting a moisture protein ratio of 3.1:1 and a pH <5.0 is not enough to ensure a sufficient log reduction of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. 2018. Minimizing the risk of Campylobacter and Salmonella illnesses associated with chicken liver (accessed 15 November 2018). | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Chicken livers | Chicken | Campylobacter spp. Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Temperature control (Freezing) Antimicrobials (Organic acid washes) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Freezing time: 24 hours to 7 days · Thawing time · Time of organic acid wash Temperature: · Internal temperature of 165°F · Freezing temperature: 5°F to -13°F · Thawing temperature: 39.2°F · Temperature of organic acid wash Concentration: · Lactic acid wash: 5% · Ethanoic/acetic acid wash: 5% Spatial configuration: · Some interventions (organic acid washes) will likely only affect Campylobacter on surface of chicken livers | For cooking: Temperature: Internal temperature For freezing: Time: Freezing time Thawing time Temperature: Freezing temperature Thawing temperature For organic acid washes: Time: Time of wash Temperature: Temperature of wash Concentration: Concentration of lactic or acetic acid | This guidance document discusses several ways based on scientific data in which Campylobacter spp. and/or Salmonella spp. risks associated with chicken liver can be minimized. 1. Cooking to a minimum internal temperature of 165°F eliminates both Campylobacter and Salmonella from the surface and the interior or chicken livers 2. Freezing can reduce but not eliminate Campylobacter contamination of chicken livers (both on the surface and likely on the interior of the livers) by up to 3 logs (see Harrison, D., Corry, J. E. L., Tchorzewska, M. A., Morris, V. K., and Hutchison, M. L. 2013. Freezing as an intervention to reduce the numbers of campylobacters isolated from chicken livers. Letters in Applied Microbiology 57:206.) 3. Organic acid washes (2 min washes at 21°C) with either 5% lactic acid or acetic acid reduced Campylobacter by ~1.5 log on the surface (but likely not the interior) of chicken livers. See also Hutchison, M., Harrison, D., Richardson, I., and Tchorzewska, M. 2015. A method for the preparation of chicken liver pate that reliably destroys Campylobacters. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 12:4652). |
| Valderrama, W. B., Mills, E. W., and Cutter, C. N. 2009. Efficacy of chlorine dioxide against Listeria monocytogenes in brine chilling solutions. J. Food Prot. 72:2272. | Other | Brine chilling solution used to rapidly cool RTE meat products after cooking and before packaging | Not applicable | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobial (Sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and chlorine dioxide) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Incubation time: up to 8 hours Temperature: Incubation temperature: 0°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 10 to 20% · Calcium chloride: : 10 to 20% · Chlorine dioxide (ClO2): 3 ppm pH: brine solutions 7.0 | Time: Time L. monocytogenes is in brine Concentration: Sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and chlorine dioxide Other: Presence of divalent cations and organic matter | L. monocytogenes survived in 10% CaCl2, 10 and 20% NaCl, and pure water. L. monocytogenes levels were reduced ~1.2 log CFU/ml in 20% CaCl2. Second, inoculated (~7 log CFU/ml) brine solutions (10 and 20% NaCl and 10% CaCl2) treated with 3 ppm of ClO2 resulted in a ~4-log reduction of the pathogen [L. monocytogenes] within 90 s. The same was not observed in a solution of 20% CaCl2; further investigation demonstrated that high levels of divalent cations interfere with the disinfectant. Spent brine solutions from hot dog and ham chilling were treated with ClO2 at concentrations of 3 or 30 ppm. At these concentrations, ClO2 did not reduce L. monocytogenes. Removal of divalent cations and organic material in brine solutions prior to disinfection with ClO2 should be investigated to improve the efficacy of the compound against L. monocytogenes. |
| Valenzuela-Martinez, C., Pena-Ramos, A., Juneja, V. K., Korasapati, N. R., Burson, D. E., and Thippareddi, H. 2010. Inhibition of Clostridium perfringens spore germination and outgrowth by buffered vinegar and lemon juice concentrate during chilling of ground turkey roast containing minimal ingredients. J. Food Prot. 73:470. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ground turkey roast containing salt and sugar | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (buffered vinegar and lemon juice concentrate [MOstatin V and MOstatin LV]) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: Heat shock: 20 min in a 75°C water bath Cooling from 60 to 54.5°C in 10 min Cooling from 54.5 to 4°C in 6.5 to 21 hours Temperature: See above under Time Concentration: Sea salt: 1.5% Turbinado sugar: 0.5% MOstatin V: 0.75, 1.25, or 2.5% MOstatin LV: 1.5, 2.5, or 3.5% Water Activity: 0.95 to 0.979 pH: 5.61 to 5.70 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed in the ground meat Spatial Configuration: 5 g portions of the treatment meat samples were inoculated, vacuum packaged, and flattened to ~2 mm thickness prior to heat shocking | Time: · Rate of cooling Temperature Concentration: MOstatin V or MOstatin LV | MOstatin V (2.5%) and MOstatin LV (3.5%) were effective in inhibiting C. perfringens spore germination and outgrowth in ground turkey roast to <1.0 log CFU/g during abusive chilling of the product within 21 h. |
| Vasan, A., Geier, R., Ingham, S. C., and Ingham, B. H. 2014. Thermal tolerance of O157 and non-O157 Shiga toxigenic strains of Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and potential pathogen surrogates, in frankfurter batter and ground beef of varying fat levels. J. Food Prot. 77:1501. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ground beef, beef frankfurter batter | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 and non-O157 STEC E. coli alone or in cocktails Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Heating time: 0 to 120 min Temperature: Water bath temperature: 55°C Concentration: In frankfurter batter: · 1.4% salt · 0.2% sodium phosphate · 1.2% potassium lactate · 0.12% sodium diacetate · 140 ppm sodium nitrite pH: Ground beef: ≤5.9 Spatial Configuration: 25 g samples of inoculated meat was placed in a WhirlPak bag and flattened (7.5 x 7.5 x 0.3 cm) prior to heat treatments Other: · Ground beef fat content: nominally 7, 15, or 27% fat (measured to be 5.41, 14.55, and 24.05% fat) · Frankfurter batter: 9% protein, 27% fat | Time: Heating time Other: Fat content | Fat content (7 to 27%) did not consistently or predictably influence D55°C levels of STEC strains or pathogen cocktails in ground beef Different STEC strains had significantly different D55°C values in ground beef, with O157:H7 strains having the highest D 55°C values in ground beef with 15 or 27% percent fat but not for 7% fat ground beef. D55°C for non-O157 STEC strains in 15 and 27% fat ground beef were less than or equal to the range of D55°C for O157. D55°C for pathogen cocktails was not significantly different when measured in 7, 15, and 27% fat ground beef. D55°C values for E. coli O157:H7, non-O157:STEC, (but not Salmonella or potential pathogen surrogates Pediococcus acidilactici or Staphylococcus carnosus) were much higher in frankfurter batter (27% fat) than for any of the ground beef batters. Results suggest that thermal processes in beef validated against E. coli O157:H7 have adequate lethality against non-O157 STEC, that thermal processes that target Salmonella destruction may not be adequate against STEC in some situations. |
| Velasquez, A., Breslin, T. J., Marks, B. P., Orta-Ramirez, A., Hall, N. O., Booren, A. M., and Ryser, E. T. 2010. Enhanced thermal resistance of Salmonella in marinated whole muscle compared with ground pork. J. Food Prot. 73:372. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Marinated whole-muscle pork Ground pork | Pork | Salmonella | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Marination time: 20 min Isothermal heating time: until internal temperature was within 0.5°C of the set point) Temperature: Marination temperature: 4°C Isothermal heating temperature: 55 to 63°C Concentration: Marinade for whole muscle pork and ground pork contained 3.2% (w/v) NaCl, 0.8% potassium phosphate Product Coverage: Salmonella was inoculated to the marinade added to the meat Spatial Configuration: · Whole muscle: plugs of 5.5 to 7.0 g; 6.0 to 8.0 cm long) · Ground pork: ground through a 4 mm diameter plate Other: · Average marinade uptake was 14% in whole muscle cores; this same amount was added to the ground pork · Whole muscle and ground samples were packed into brass tubes (1.27 cm diameter, 10 cm long) and sealed before heating · Raw pork contained 2.5% fat and 73.6% moisture | Time: Cooking time Temperature: Isothermal cooking temperature Spatial configuration: whole muscle vs. ground | This study addressed whether an internal muscle environment allowed greater thermal resistance for Salmonella than a ground meat product. Overall, Salmonella was 0.64 to 2.96 times more resistant in the whole muscle than in the ground pork. The corresponding D-values at 55, 58, 60, 62, and 63°C were 23.4, 3.43, 1.74, 0.77, and 0.74 min, respectively, for whole muscle and 8.75, 1.50, 0.61, 0.47, and 0.28 min, respectively, for ground pork. A very similar study was also done previously in turkey: https://jfoodprotection.org/doi/pdf/10.4315/0362-028X-71.12.2548 |
| Velugoti, P. R., Bohra, L. K., Juneja, V. K., and Thippareddi, H. 2007. Inhibition of germination and outgrowth of Clostridium perfringens spores by lactic acid salts during cooling of injected turkey. J. Food Prot. 70:923. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Injected turkey breast meat product | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Calcium lactate, potassium lactate, and sodium lactate) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: Heat shock: 20 min in a 75°C water bath Cooling from 60 to 54.5°C in 5 min Cooling from 54.5 to 7.2°C in 6.5 to 21 hours Cooling from 7.2 to 4.4°C within 30 min Temperature: See above under Time Concentration: Salt (all turkey samples): 0.85% Calcium lactate: 1.0 to 4.8% (w/w) Potassium lactate: 1.0 to 4.8% (w/w) Sodium lactate: 1.0 to 4.8% (w/w) Water Activity: 0.976 to 0.987 across all samples, indicating very small decreases in aw with increasing lactate levels pH: Untreated turkey: 5.84 Turkey with calcium lactate: 5.26 to 5.65 Turkey with potassium lactate: 6.08 to 6.11 Turkey with sodium lactate: 6.04 to 6.10 Product Coverage: Lactate salts were mixed with the injected turkey breast meat to achieve products with the desired lactate salt concentrations, considering the moisture content of the antimicrobials. Spatial Configuration: 5 g portions of the treatment meat samples were inoculated, vacuum packaged, and flattened to ~0.2 mm thickness prior to heat shocking Other: Meat product was 76.2% moisture, 20.7% protein, and 0.7% fat | Time: · Rate of cooling Temperature Cooling temperatures Concentration: · Type of lactate salt · Concentration of lactate salt in product | This study tested whether lactate salts at different levels could inhibit the germination and outgrowth of C. perfringens in cooked turkey during exponential cooling. Cooling of injected turkey (containing no antimicrobials) resulted in C. perfringens germination and an outgrowth of 0.5, 2.4, 3.4, 5.1, 5.8, and 5.8 log CFU/g when exponentially cooled from 54.4 to 7.2C in 6.5, 12, 15, 18, and 21 h, respectively. The incorporation of antimicrobials (lactates), regardless of the type (Ca, Na, or K salts), inhibited the germination and outgrowth of C. perfringens spores at all the concentrations evaluated (1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.8%) compared to the injected turkey without acetate (control). Increasing the concentrations of the antimicrobials resulted in a greater inhibition of the spore germination and outgrowth in the products. In general, calcium lactate was more effective in inhibiting the germination and outgrowth of C. perfringens spores at 1.0% concentration than were sodium and potassium lactates. Decreased water activity is not responsible for lactate’s antimicrobial activity. The lower pH observed with calcium lactate products may be why it was more effective than the other lactate salts. |
| Velugoti, P. R., Rajagopal, L., Juneja, V., and Thippareddi, H. 2007. Use of calcium, potassium, and sodium lactates to control germination and outgrowth of Clostridium perfringens spores during chilling of injected pork. Food Microbiol. 24:687. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked boneless pork loin | Pork | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Calcium lactate, potassium lactate, and sodium lactate) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: Heat shock: 20 min in a 75°C water bath Cooling from 60 to 54.5°C in 10 min Cooling from 54.5 to 7.2°C in 6.5 to 21 hours Cooling from 7.2 to 4.4°C within 10 min Temperature: See above under Time Concentration: Salt (all samples): 0.85% Calcium lactate (CaL): 1.0 to 4.8% (w/w) Potassium lactate (KL): 1.0 to 4.8% (w/w) Sodium lactate (NaL): 1.0 to 4.8% (w/w) Water Activity: ~0.967 to 0.985 pH: Untreated pork: 6.13 Pork with calcium lactate: 5.62 to 5.86 Pork with potassium lactate: ~6.3 to ~6.4 Pork with sodium lactate: ~6.3 to ~6.4 Product Coverage: Lactate salts were mixed with the injected pork meat to achieve products with the desired lactate salt concentrations, considering the moisture content of the antimicrobials. Spatial Configuration: Spatial Configuration: 5 g portions of the treatment meat samples were inoculated, vacuum packaged, and flattened to ~2 mm thickness prior to heat shocking | Time: · Rate of cooling Temperature Concentration: · Type of lactate salt · Concentration of lactate salt in product | Chilling of injected pork (control) from 54.4 to 7.21C within 6.5, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 21 h exponential chill rates resulted in C. perfringens population increases of 0.49, 2.40, 4.02, 5.03, 6.24, and 6.30 log10CFU/g, respectively. Addition of CaL at 1.0% or KL and NaL ≥2.0% to injected pork was able to control C. perfringens germination and outgrowth to 1 log CFU/g, meeting the USDA-FSIS performance standard. However, extension of chilling rates beyond 9.0 h (up to 21 h) required addition of CaL (≥2.0%),KL or NaL (≥3.0%) to meet the stabilization performance standard. In general, CaL was more effective compared to KL or NaL for all the chilling regimes, in reducing the potential risk of C. perfringens germination and outgrowth. |
| Vercammen, A., Vanoirbeek, K. G. A., Lurquin, I., Steen, L., Goemaere, O., Szczepaniak, S., Paelinck, H., Hendrickx, M. E. G., and Michiels, C. W. 2011. Shelf-life extension of cooked ham model product by high hydrostatic pressure and natural preservatives. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 12:407. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked ham model product | Pork | Listeria innocua E. coli O157:H7 (a nontoxigenic strain) and additional surrogate strains | Antimicrobials (Caprylic acid, Purasal® Optiform PD Plus, which is a mixture containing 72.8% potassium lactate and 5.2% sodium diacetate) High pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: HPP treatment: 10 min Storage time: up to 84 days Temperature: HPP temperature: 5 to 40°C Temperature increase during pressurization: 5 to 8°C Storage temperature: 7°C Concentration: In all hams after tumbling: Salt: 18 g/kg Sodium nitrite: 0.120 g/kg Sodium ascorbate: 5 g/kg Glucose: 5 g/kg Phosphate: 3/kg/kg To test hams: 1.5 g/kg caprylic acid 25 g/kg Purasal Optiform PD Plus Water Activity: Not measured, but stated that it is >0.945 pH: 6.0 in the absence of additives, 5.85 in the presence of additives Product Coverage: Ham pieces were tumbled in a brine containing the antimicrobials Spatial Configuration: 30 mm pieces of ham, which after bumbling were packed in narrow (30 mm diameter, 20 cm length) or wide (110 mm diameter and 20 cm length) casings After cooking and cooling, produce was sliced into 1 g portions and transferred to small polylethylene pouches prior to inoculation inoculation. Pressure: 100 to 700 MPa Equipment Settings: See paper for HPP specifics | Pathogen reduction: Temperature: HPP treatment temperature Pressure: HPP pressure Other: Bacterial strain | This study tested the effects of HPP treatment, alone or together with antimicrobials, on the ability of a variety of microorganisms to survive after HPP treatment and then to inhibit the growth of these organisms during storage at 7°C. Survival study (w/o antimicrobials): The threshold pressure needed to inactivate the surrogate strains that were tested was around 300-400 MPa, and inactivation was greater at higher temperatures. The surrogate strains showed higher survival in the 500-700 MPa range than did spoilage organisms. Treatment at 600 or 700 MPa reduced all surrogate strains by at least 4.8 log at all temperatures except for one pressure resistant E. coli strain at 5°C which was reduced by only ~2 log. Shelf life study: No surrogate strains were tested in this portion of the study, only spoilage organisms. The addition of either caprylic acid or Purasal in combination with 600 MPa treatment for 10 minutes was sufficient to prevent any microbial outgrowth during the 84 days of storage at 7°C. Either antimicrobial alone or HPP alone did not prevent outgrowth under these conditions. |
| Wang, L. L., and Johnson, E. A. 1997. Control of Listeria monocytogenes by monoglycerides in foods. J. Food Prot. 60:131. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Various, including beef frank slurries, turkey frank slurries, and summer sausage slurries | Beef Pork and beef Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (monoglycerides MC10, MC12 and lyophilized MCs prepared from coconut oil as well as possible potentiators potassium sorbate and BHA) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 2 months Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 and 12°C Concentration: MC in foods: 250 to ≥ 1000 mg/g Ethanol: 0.25 to 0.5% BHA: 100 mg/g Potassium sorbate: 0.1 and 0.2% Water Activity: pH: pH of beef frank slurries was 5.5 or 5.0; pH of turkey frank slurries was 6.1 or 5.6; pH of summer sausage was 4.9 Product Coverage: Added directly to slurries Spatial Configuration:100 g slurry samples Other: Inoculated samples were stored in 16 oz. polystyrene bags sealed with a twist tie | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of monoglycerides pH Other: Food type | Among the meats tested, MCs showed the highest listericidal activity in beef frank slurries. The MC activity in beef frank slurries was enhanced when the pH was lowered from 5.5 to 5.0, but it was not enhanced when potassium sorbate or BHA was added. The MCs did not show significant inhibitory activity in turkey frank slurries at pH 6.1, but did show improved activity at pH 5.6. The MCs did not show activity against summer sausage (pH 4.9) At a higher storage temperature of 12°C, MCs delayed growth of L. monocytogenes for 3-5 days but did not kill significant numbers of cells and did not prevent eventual growth. The presence of other antimicrobials and emulsifiers affected the antilisterial effect of MCs in non-meat foods in this study but was not extensively tested in meat products. |
| Wang, L. X., Zhao, L., Yuan, J., and Jin, T. Z. 2015. Application of a novel antimicrobial coating on roast beef for inactivation and inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes during storage. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 211:66. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ready-to-eat, fully-cooked (medium well) roast beef | Beef | L. monocytogenes | Antimicrobial (Coating solutions with organic acids, lauric arginate ester, and chitosan) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 30 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: Stock solution (HAMS), 1:5 dilution (MAMS), and 1:10 dilution of the following (LAMS): · 5% chitosan · 2% acetic acid · 2% lactic acid · 2% levulinic acid · 200 mL/mL of a 20% solution of lauric arginate ester Water Activity: 0.975 to 0.984 at Day 0; 0.972 to 0.980 at Day 0 pH: 5.12 to 5.97 at Day 0; 5.16 to 5.87 at Day 30 Product Coverage: · For slices: 900 mL of antimicrobial solution was applied evenly to the surface of inoculated roast beef slices 20 minutes after inoculation. · For cubes: treatment with HAMS occurred at different times (every 5 days) after inoculation during storage Spatial Configuration: · Roast beef slices were 2.0 mm x 8.57 cm x 8.57 cm · Roast beef cubes were 2 cm x 8.57 cm x 8.57 cm Other: Treated roast beef slices (2) were placed in Whirl-Pak bags for storage | Time: · Storage time · Time of application of antimicrobial solution relative to inoculation Concentration: · Concentration of antimicrobials within the coating solution Other: · Initial inoculation levels | Within 20 minute of application, surface inoculated L. monocytogenes levels were reduced by 0.9 to 0.3 log by the antimicrobial coating solution and its dilutions, with greater reductions with higher concentrations of the coating solution. During storage at 4°C, the HAMS prevented L. monocytogenes growth through 30 days. The MAMS allowed slight growth (1.6 log CFU/cm2), while the LAMS allowed 4.6 log CFU/cm2). In contrast, the no-treatment control allowed 5.7 log CFU/cm2 growth. With high inoculation levels (~6 log CFU/cm2),the MAMS solution exhibited growth inhibition longer than did a low (~3 log CFU/cm2) level. Although Listeria levels increased during storage in beef inoculated at a low (~3 log CFU/cm2) level, antilisterial effects of HAMS were seen at whatever time it was applied to the meat during storage. In contrast, when the initial inoculum occurred at a higher level (~6 log CFU/cm2), HAMS was only effective when it was applied during the first 15 days. |
| Wederquist, H. J., Sofos, J. N., and Schmidt, G. R. 1994. Listeria monocytogenes inhibition in refrigerated vacuum-packaged turkey bologna by chemical additives. J. Food Sci. 59:498. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Turkey bologna | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium acetate, sodium lactate, potassium sorbate, sodium bicarbonate) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 98 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: In all formulations: · Sodium nitrite: 157 ppm · Sodium erythorbate: 500 ppm In test formulations: · Sodium acetate: 0.5% · Sodium bicarbonate: 1% · Sodium lactate: 3.3% · Potassium sorbate: 0.26% Water Activity: 0.945 to 0.965 pH: At beginning of storage: · Turkey bologna with sodium bicarbonate: 7.59 to 7.63 · Turkey bologna w/o sodium bicarbonate: 6.58 to 6.73 At end of storage: 5.88 to 7.32 for all formulations Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were in the formulation Spatial Configuration: Slices of 4-5 mm thickness, 7.62 cm diameter; 2 slices per test packaged Other: · % moisture: 61.78 to 65.69 · % fat: 13.52 to 14.49 · % protein: 14.27 to 15.70 · Inoculated slices were wrapped in PVC film and vacuum packaged at 120 mm Hg | Time: Storage time Concentration: Sodium acetate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium lactate pH: (elevated pH >7 may allow for enhanced L. monocytogenes growth) | This study tested how the inclusion of various antimicrobials in the formulation of turkey bologna affected the growth of L. monocytogenes during 98 days of storage at 4°C. Control bologna w/o antimicrobials allowed >9 log cfu/g growth by day 63. Sodium acetate held growth to 1.33 at 70 days. Potassium sorbate, and sodium lactate were also effective holding growth to 2.13 at 91 days, and 2.51 log cfu/g at 98 days, respectively. A combination of all four test additives, including sodium bicarbonate, was slightly less inhibitory than any of the individual additives. Sodium bicarbonate alone did not inhibit growth at all. |
| Wenther, J. B. 2004. Jerky compliance guidelines. edited by American Association of Meat Processors. | HT/SS | Meat jerky | Not specified | This guidance applies to Campylobacter, Clostridium perfringens, E. coli O57:H7, L. monocytogenes, Salmonella, and Staphylcoccus aureus; mold | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Potassium sorbate for mold control) Water activity control Packaging (Vacuum packaging, use of oxygen scavenger packets) | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth | Time: See document Temperature: See document Humidity: See document Water Activity: See document Other: Moisture protein ratio | Time: (as specified in Appendix A) Temperature: (as specified in Appendix A) Water activity: · If ≤ 0.70, neither pathogens nor mold should grow. · If ≤0.85, additional control measures (vacuum packaging, oxygen scavenger packets, potassium sorbate) should be included to prevent mold growth Relative humidity | This document developed by AAMP was written to help jerky manufacturers meet 2004 USDA FSIS guidelines for jerky. Moisture protein ratios cannot be used for critical control points in HACCP plans. FSIS requires jerky producers to meet a suggested water activity. To meet Appendix A requirements when making jerky, certain criteria related to humidity are listed which ensure compliance: · Closing oven dampers to provide a sealed system and prevent moisture loss · Continuously introduce steam for 50% of the cooking time but in no case less than 1 hour · Maintain 90% RH for at least 25% of the cooking time but in no case less than 1 hour The document includes sample smokehouse schedules which will comply with Appendix A. |
| Weyker RE, Glass KA, Milkowski AL, Seman DL, Sindelar JJ (2016) Controlling Listeria monocytogenes and Leuconostoc mesenteroides in Uncured Deli-style Turkey Breast Using a Clean Label Antimicrobial. Journal of Food Science 81 (3):M672-M683. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Uncured deli-style turkey breast | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobial (cultured sugar-vinegar blend) Water activity control (moisture) pH control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 16 weeks storage Temperature: 4°C storage temperature Concentration: Base formulation contained 1.9% salt, 1.0% dextrose, 0.4% sodium phosphates, 1.0% kappa carrageenan, and 2.0% waxy corn modified starch 2.5% to 5.0% cultured sugar-vinegar blend (CSVB) Water Activity: 0.952 to 0.975 pH: 5.8 to 6.4 Product Coverage: CSVB was in formulation Spatial Configuration: 25 g slices Other: · Moisture: 60 to 80% · Protein: 5.36 to 20.06% · Fat: 0.01 to 14.32% · Slices were vacuum sealed for 3-4 days prior to inoculation | Time: Storage time Concentration: Concentration of CSVB in formulation pH Moisture content | A variety of formulations containing various amounts of CSVB at various pHs and with varying moisture contents were tested for their ability to support L. monocytogenes growth. At pH 6.11 and 70.6% moisture, 1.71% CSVB was able to inhibit L. monocytogenes growth for 10 weeks of storage, while a comparable formulation without CSVB allowed a 5 log increase in L. monocytogenes levels. CSVB, even when present at high concentrations (5.0%) could not inhibit L. monocytogenes growth in formulations with high moisture and high pH. |
| Wiegand, K. M., Ingham, S. C., and Ingham, B. H. 2012. Evaluating lethality of beef roast cooking treatments against Escherichia coli O157:H7. J. Food Prot. 75:48. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Whole muscle beef roast, ground beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Proprietary seasoning mixes) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · For ground beef experiments: up to 400 min · For beef roast experiments: up to 471 min Temperature: · Heating temperatures: 54.4, 60.0, and 65.5°C for ground beef · Target end temperatures for beef roast experiments: 54.4 to 71.1°C Concentration: Nitrite: 157.7 ppm for one treatment Phosphates: Humidity: 13 to 90% RH Water Activity: 0.984 to 0.993 for ground beef and roasts pH: · Unseasoned ground beef: 5.95 · Seasoned ground beef: 6.20 · Beef roast: 5.87 Product Coverage: Brines for roasts were either tumbled, manually injected or were dry rubbed instead of brined. Inoculation was done to an interior region of the roasts, see paper. Spatial Configuration: Ground beef: 25 g samples Beef roasts: 2.2 to 8.9 kg Other: · % salt: 0.16 to 1.32 · % protein: 17.64 to 22.03 · % moisture: 71.94 to 75.19 · % fat: 0.49 to 5.10 | Time: Heating time Temperature: Heating temperature or isothermal cooking profile Concentration: Presence of seasonings | The study tested how seasonings added to commercials beef roasts or ground beef affected the ability of heat (under isothermal and nonisothermal conditions) to kill E. coli O157:H7. Adding 5% seasoning significantly decreased E. coli O157:H7 thermotolerance in ground beef at 54.4°C, but not at 60 or 65.5°C Under nonisothermal conditions, E. coli O157:H7 thermotolerance was greater in seasoned whole-muscle beef than in seasoned ground beef Following the 1999 Appendix A would not ensure a ≥6.5 log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 in ground beef systems but would meet that reduction for that pathogen in seasoned whole-muscle beef. Using D- and z-values obtained from isothermal studies with ground beef overestimated the destruction of E. coli O157:H7 in cooked whole-muscle beef as process severity increased. |
| Wu, S. Q., Zhang, H. X., Zhou, H. M., Jin, J. H., and Xie, Y. H. 2017. Synergistic effect of plantaricin BM-1 combined with physicochemical treatments on the control of Listeria monocytogenes in cooked ham. J. Food Prot. 80:976. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cooked ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Plantaricin BM-1, sodium nitrite) Temperature control (Heat treatment) High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · HPP time: 5 min · Heat treatment: 2 min · Cooling after heat treatment: 30 min · Storage time: up to 49 or 56 days Temperature: · HPP temperature: 17°C · Water bath temperature for heat treatment: 60°C · Cooling temperature after heat treatment: 4°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Plantaricin BM-1: 5120 AU/g · Sodium nitrite: 0.075 to 0.15 mg/g Product Coverage: Plantaricin BM-1 and sodium nitrite were added to the brine during manufacture of hams. Spatial Configuration: 3-4 mm slices weighing ~25 g were inoculated on a single side and vacuum packaged (1 slice/bag) Pressure: 400 or 600 MPa | Time: · Heat treatment time · HPP time · Storage time Concentration: · Plantaricin BM-1 · Sodium nitrite Pressure: HPP pressure | Plantaricin BM-1 is not yet approved for use in the U.S. This study tested whether the bacteriocins plantaracin BM-1 together with various other interventions (nitrite, heat treatment, or HPP treatment) to see if synergistic effects on L. monocytogenes would be observed. …the addition of sodium nitrite or heat treatment alone did not inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes in cooked ham. The combined application of 5,120 arbitrary units per gram (AU/g) plantaricin BM-1 and 0.075 mg/g sodium nitrite reduced L. monocytogenes significantly more effectively (by 1.97 log CFU/g) than application of 5,120 AU/g plantaricin alone. Plantaricin BM-1 application combined with sodium nitrite and heat treatment led to viable counts of L. monocytogenes below the level of detection for 49 days of storage. Moreover, in cooked ham treated with 5,120 AU/g plantaricin BM-1, 0.075 mg/g sodium nitrite, and ultrahigh pressure technology (400 MPa for 5 min), viable counts of L. monocytogenes were reduced by 5.79 log CFU/g compared with control samples at the end of storage. |
| Xi, Y., Sullivan, G. A., Jackson, A. L., Zhou, G. H., and Sebranek, J. G. 2011. Use of natural antimicrobials to improve the control of Listeria monocytogenes in a cured cooked meat model system. Meat Sci. 88:503. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Cured cooked meat model system | Pork and beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Nitrite, cranberry powder, cherry powder, lime powder, and grape seed extract) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 12 days Temperature: Storage temperature 10°C Concentration: · All formulations contained salt (2%) and ingoing sodium nitrite at 50 to 200 ppm · Other formulations contained combinations of the following ingredients: o Sodium lactate (either at 4.8% or 2%) plus sodium diacetate at 0.25% o Cranberry powder at 1, 2, or 3% o Cherry powder: 0.6% o Green tea extract: 1000 ppm o Sodium ascorbate: 550 ppm o Lime powder: 60 ppm o Lemon powder: 60 ppm o Grape seed extract: 0.5% o VegStable 517 at 0.7% pH: Addition of cranberry powder reduced pH 0.35 to 0.90 units Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were incorporated in the product formulations Spatial Configuration: 25 g samples Other: · Lean:fat ratio was 80:20 Samples were vacuum packaged after inoculation | Time: Storage time Concentration: Nitrite, sodium lactate plus sodium diacetate, cranberry powder | Adding nitrite at 150 ppm or more was confirmed as important for improving the control of L. monocytogenes in the meat model system, even though this pathogen will grow in the presence of nitrite Traditional antimicrobials such as lactate and diacetate were also confirmed as effective L. monocytogenes inhibitors Cranberry powder showed potential to improve control of L. monocytogenes in processed meat products. Other tested natural compounds were less effective. |
| Xi, Y., Sullivan, G. A., Jackson, A. L., Zhou, G. H., and Sebranek, J. G. 2012. Effects of natural antimicrobials on inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes and on chemical, physical and sensory attributes of naturally-cured frankfurters. Meat Sci. 90:130. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Naturally cured frankfurters | Beef and pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Preconverted celery powder, sodium nitrite plus sodium erythorbate and lactate/diacetate blend, cranberry powder, cherry powder, lime powder, cherry plus lime plus vinegar) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 49 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: All formulations contained 2.25% salt. In addition to a negative control, other formulations included the following: 2. Preconverted celery powder at 0.4% in formulation to provide 48 mg/kg nitrite 3. 156 mg/kg sodium nitrite plus 550 mg/kg sodium erythorbate and 2.5% lactate and diacetate blend 4. Same as #2 plus 1% cranberry powder and 0.6% cherry powder 5. Same as #2 plus 2% cranberry powder and 60 ppm lime powder 6. Same as #2 plus 3% cranberry powder 7. Same as #2 plus 1.4% VegStable 517 8. Same as #2 plus 3% cranberry powder and 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate pH: 5.25 to 6.18 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were added to formulations Spatial Configuration: · 24 mm casings were used to make frankfurters · 25 g frankfurter pieces were inoculated Other: 27% fat in formulation | Time: Storage time Concentration: Nitrite, cherry powder | This study compared the ability of various combinations of natural antimicrobials, together with nitrite obtained from preconverted celery powder vs. conventionally cured formulations (with nitrite, erythorbate, lactate, and diacetate) to control L. monocytogenes growth on frankfurters. No growth for any formulation including controls was observed for the first 28 days, but significant differences between formulations were observed starting at day 35. 48 mg/kg nitrite from preconverted celery powder had very limited impact on L. monocytogenes growth. Formulations with cranberry powder reduced L. monocytogenes growth; this effect appears to be related to the pH decrease associated with cranberry powder. Cranberry powder at 3% significantly reduced L. monocytogenes growth in naturally cured frankfurters by ~5 logs compared to the negative control at day 49, but negatively impacted sensory attributes of the product. |
| Yang, X., Devos, J., and Klassen, M. D. 2017. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in minute steaks cooked under selected conditions. J. Food Prot. 80:1641. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Minute steaks (thin, mechanically tenderized beef cutlets) | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Cooking time: 4 to 10 min or to 63 or 71°C internal temperature (at thickest area) Temperature: · Starting internal temperature of steaks: 2 to 11°C · Hot plate (mimicking a pan-frying scenario): 200°C Product Coverage: · Steaks were inoculated at the geometric center and in the central plane 1 and 2 cm from an edge Spatial Configuration: · The minute steaks weighed 125 6 24 g and were 13.5 6 1.7 cm wide and 9.8 6 1.5 cm long. The thickness of most minute steaks was in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 cm, but some areas could be as thick as 1.5 cm Other: · During cooking, steaks were turned over up to 4 times at equal time intervals · Steaks were cooked with or without a foil lid (4 layers of foil) | Time: Cooking time (if not measuring internal temperature Temperature: Cooking temperature or Internal temperature Other: Flipping/turning over steaks at least twice | When cooked for 4 min, E. coli O157:H7 was recovered from all inoculation sites, and the mean reductions at various sites (1.2 to 3.4 log CFU per site) were not different, irrespective of the flipping frequency. When cooked for 6 min with flipping once or twice, or for 8 min with flipping once, E. coli O157:H7 was recovered from most sites; the mean reductions (3.8 to 5.3 log CFU per site) were not different, but they were higher than those for steaks cooked for 4 min. When cooked for 10, 8, or 6 min with flipping once, twice, or three times, respectively, E. coli O157:H7 was eliminated from most sites, but sites with <5-log reductions were found. Reductions of E. coli O157:H7 by >5 log at all inoculation sites were attained when the steaks were cooked for 10 or 8 min with two or more or three or more flippings, respectively, or for 6 min with four flippings. When flipped twice during cooking to 63 or 71°C, E. coli O157:H7 was recovered from three or fewer sites; however, >5-log reductions throughout the steaks were only attained for the latter temperature, irrespective of whether the hot plate was covered with the tinfoil lid. Thus, turning over minute steaks twice during cooking to 71°C or flipping two, three, or four times with a cooking time of 10, 8, or 6 min could achieve 5-log reductions throughout the steaks. |
| Yarbaeva SN, Velugoti PR, Thippareddi H, Albrecht JA (2008) Evaluation of the microbial quality of Tajik sambusa and control of Clostridium perfringens germination and outgrowth by buffered sodium citrate and potassium lactate. J Food Prot 71 (1):77-82. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Sambusas (meat-filled pastries) | Beef | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (buffered sodium citrate [Ional] and 2% potassium lactate, wt/wt) | Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: Sambusa baking time: 45 min Sambusa cooling time: 24 hours Temperature: Oven temperature: 180°C Internal sambusa temperature after baking: 98°C Cooling temperature (after baking): room temperature (21.4°C) or under refrigeration (3.2°C) Concentration: 1 or 2% (wt/wt) buffered sodium citrate 1 or 2% (wt/wt) potassium lactate Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with the ground beef prior to baking Spatial Configuration: Sambusas contained about 100 g of dough and 40 g of a ground beef mixture | Time: Cooling time Temperature: Cooling temperature Concentration: Buffered sodium citrate | Baking reduced C. perfringens vegetative cell number by >1 log relative to pre-baking levels. 23-hour cooling of sambusas at 3.2°C resulted in much less C. perfringens growth (>4 logs lower) compared to sambusas cooled at room temperature. Addition of buffered citrate at 2% reduced C. perfringens levels and prevented germination and outgrowth from spores over 24 hours of cooling at room temperature. With a lower level of buffered citrate (1%) or 1 or 2% potassium lactate, germination and outgrowth (3-5 log) still occurred. |
| Ye, M., Neetoo, H., and Chen, H. 2008. Control of Listeria monocytogenes on ham steaks by antimicrobials incorporated into chitosan-coated plastic films. Food Microbiol. 25:260. | FC/NSS (Ready to eat [RTE]) | Ham steaks | Pork | L. monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Nisin, sodium lactate, sodium diacetate, potassium sorbate, or sodium benzoate; these antimicrobials were incorporated in a chitosan-coated plastic film) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 12 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 4 or ~20°C Concentration: · Chitosan-coated film: 0.001 to 0.0055 g chitosan/cm2 · Nisin: 500 IU/cm2 · Sodium lactate: 0.01 g/cm2 · Sodium diacetate: 0.0025 g/cm2 · Potassium sorbate: 0.003 g/cm2 · Sodium benzoate: 0.001 g/cm2 Product Coverage: Inoculated ham samples were wrapped in the antimicrobial and control films Spatial Configuration: Ham steaks were 5.7 cm diameter round pieces weighing 28 g with a surface area of 25.7 cm2 on one side Other: · Low molecular weight chitosans were used in the ham studies · Plastic film was Surlyn® film · Samples were vacuum packaged in 3-mm thick high barrier pouches | Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Antimicrobial concentration | Chitosan-coated plastic films alone were not sufficient to control L. monocytogenes growth on ham steaks, so this study incorporated various known antimicrobials into the films to see if this would improve control of this pathogen. In the first study, the ham steaks coated with the antimicrobial plus chitosan films were incubated at room temperature for 10 days. The incorporation of the antimicrobials slowed down or inhibited the growth of L. monocytogenes during storage, with sodium lactate showing the best inhibition (no growth during 10 days). In the second study, the ham steaks with chitosan plus sodium lactate plastic films were stored for 12 weeks at 4°C. At the end of this storage, L. monocytogenes numbers were lower than the initial inoculum levels, while controls using a plain film or a chitosan only film showed >4 log increases in L. monocytogenes levels. |
| Yoon, Y., Geornaras, I., Kendall, P. A., and Sofos, J. N. 2009. Modeling the effect of marination and temperature on Salmonella inactivation during drying of beef jerky. J. Food Sci. 74:M165. | HT/SS | Beef jerky | Beef | Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Acetic acid) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Acetic acid dip time: 10 min · Marinade time: 24 hours · Drying time: 0 to 10 hours Temperature: · Marinade temperature: 4°C · Drying temperature: 52, 57, or 63°C Concentration: · Traditional marinade: see paper for composition · Acetic acid dip: 5% acetic acid Water Activity: · Prior to drying: 0.986 to 0.996 · After drying: 0.469 to 0.666 pH: · Acetic acid solution: 2.5 · Jerky samples: 4.36 to 5.49 Product Coverage: Acetic acid was applied as a dip Spatial Configuration: Beef was cut into 0.6 x 8.7 x 4 cm pieces prior to drying Other: Altitude as which drying was conducted: 1600 m | Time: Drying time Temperature: Drying temperature Concentration: Acetic acid dip | This study tested the effects of drying temperature combined with a pre-drying marinade on the reduction of Salmonella on beef jerky. This data was used to develop a predictive model. Salmonella levels were reduced by 1.1 to 2.4 log CFU/cm2 for jerky during the pre-drying stage for samples that had been dipped in acetic acid prior to marinade treatment (vs. ≤0.3 log CFU/cm2 for marinade alone). Salmonella levels decreased faster when drying occurred at 63°C vs. 52 or 57°C. Treatment with acetic acid also result in greater Salmonella reductions during drying regardless of drying temperature. |
| Yoon, Y., Geornaras, I., Mukherjee, A., Belk, K. E., Scanga, J. A., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2013. Effects of cooking methods and chemical tenderizers on survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ground beef patties. Meat Sci. 95:317. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Fresh ground beef patties, 95% lean | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Storage temperature; heat treatment by grilling, broiling, or pan-frying) Antimicrobials (Acetic acid) Packaging (Vacuum vs. aerobic) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Storage time prior to cooking: 2 to 50 days depending on storage temperature and packaging conditions · Cooking time: until samples reached 60 or 65°C Temperature: · Storage temperature prior to cooking: -20, 4, and 12°C · Broiled and pan-fried patties were flipped when they reached 40 or 42.5°C (for final internal cooking temperatures of 60 or 65°C, respectively) Concentration: · Calcium chloride: 0.23% · Acetic acid: 0.3% · Potassium lactate: 1.8% Water Activity: 0.984 pH: · Untreated beef: 5.52 · Beef patties containing acetic acid: <5.0 (but pH increased upon addition of other tenderizers) Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with ground meat Spatial Configuration: 100 g patties, 10 cm in diameter Other: · Fat content: 6.2% · Moisture content: 69.7% Packaging: After addition of chemical tenderizers and inoculation, patties were stored in aerobic or vacuum bags | Temperature: · Internal temperature after cooking Concentration: · Acetic acid at 0.3% Other: · Cooking method | Broiling was more effective than grilling or pan-frying at reducing E. coli O157:H7 levels. Broiling and grilling (but not pan-frying) generally resulted in a greater reduction of E. coli O157:H7 when cooked to 65°C vs. 60°C. Addition of tenderizers that contained acetic acid were more effective than non-acidified tenderizers at reducing E. coli O157:H7 levels during broiling to 65°C. Storage of patties prior to cooking did not result in obvious changes of E. coli O157:H7 levels under any conditions. Prior storage conditions did not influence how cooking methods altered E. coli O157:H7 levels. |
| Yoon, Y., Mukherjee, A., Belk, K. E., Scanga, J. A., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2009. Effect of tenderizers combined with organic acids on Escherichia coli O157:H7 thermal resistance in non-intact beef. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 133:78. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Fresh ground beef, 95% lean | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Acetic acid, citric acid) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Storage before cooking: overnight · Cooking time: until samples reached 60 or 65°C (12 to 19 min) Temperature: · Storage prior to cooking: 4°C · Initial temperature prior to cooking: 13 to 14°C · Water bath temperature: 65 or 70°C · Internal temperature after cooking: 60 or 65°C Concentration: · Calcium ascorbate: 0.86% · Calcium chloride: 0.23% · Acetic acid: 0.3% · Citric acid: 0.2% · NaCl: 0.5% Water Activity: Untreated beef: 0.985 to 0.987 pH: · Untreated beef: 5.59 to 5.73 · After treatment with organic acids: 4.93 to 5.44 · After treatment with other ingredients: 5.42 to 5.87 Contact Time: Overnight Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with ground meat Spatial Configuration: 30 g samples of beef extruded into 2.5 cm diameter x 10 cm height plastic tubes prior to heat treatment Other: · Fat content: 4.7 to 5.0% Moisture: 71.7 to 72.6% | Temperature: · Internal temperature after cooking Concentration: · Acetic acid at 0.3% · Citric acid at 0.2% | This study tested how the addition of various tenderness or flavor-enhancing ingredients, including organic acids, affects thermal inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 present in the meat. Overnight storage of meat with various ingredients including organic acids did not result in a significant change in bacterial populations. Thermal destruction of total bacteria and E.coli O157:H7 was higher (P<0.05) in samples exposed to acetic acid and combination treatments containing acetic acid compared to other treatments after cooking to 60 °C or 65 °C; citric acid and combinations containing citric acid caused more destruction only in samples cooked to 65 °C. |
| Yoon, Y., Mukherjee, A., Geornaras, I., Belk, K. E., Scanga, J. A., Smith, G. C., and Sofos, J. N. 2011. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 during cooking of non-intact beef treated with tenderization/marination and flavoring ingredients. Food Contr. 22:1859. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Fresh ground beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Acetic acid) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Storage time prior to cooking: overnight · Cooking time: until samples reached 60 or 65°C Temperature: · Storage temperature prior to cooking: 4°C · Water bath temperature: 63°C or 68°C · Internal temperature after cooking: 60 or 65°C Concentration: · Acetic acid: 0.3% · Calcium chloride: 0.23% · Sodium chloride: 0.5% · Sodium tripolyphosphate: 0.25% · Potassium lactate: 1.8% Water Activity: Fresh beef: 0.984 pH: 4.85 to 5.71 after treatment with various ingredients and inoculation Contact Time: Overnight Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with ground meat Spatial Configuration: 30 g samples of beef were extruded into 2.5 cm diameter x 10 cm height plastic tubes prior to heat treatment Other: · Fat content of fresh beef: 3.2% · Moisture content of fresh beef: 69.6% | Temperature: · Internal temperature after cooking Concentration: Acetic acid at 0.3% | This study tested how the addition of various tenderness or flavor-enhancing ingredients, including acetic acid, affects thermal inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 present in the meat. Reductions of the pathogen [E. coli O157:H7] at 60 °C in acid (AA)-treated samples were higher than reductions obtained in samples not treated with acid. Tenderizing/flavoring ingredient combinations that contained 0.3% acetic acid increased the thermal destruction of E. coli O157:H7 in non-intact beef compared to combinations that lacked acetic acid. |
| Akhtar S, Paredes-Sabja D, Sarker MR (2008) Inhibitory effects of polyphosphates on Clostridium perfringens growth, sporulation and spore outgrowth. Food Microbiology 25 (6):802-808. | FC/NSS | Poultry | Poultry | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Polyphosphates) |
Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: · Cooking time: 13 min · Storage time: 12 hours Temperature: · Cooking temperature: 80°C · Storage temperature: 37°C Concentration: 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8% and 1.0% sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) pH: 6.9 Product Coverage: Polyphosphates were mixed with ground meat Other: Anaerobic conditions |
Concentration: 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1% STPP (Moisture, salt, aw were not described in the paper) |
Concentrations of 0.2 to 0.6% STPP reduced C. perfringens growth from spores at 12 hours, 37°C, relative to controls. Higher concentrations (0.8 and 1.0%) of STPP resulted in reductions in initial counts with no increase at 12 hours. This study demonstrates that STPP is also a factor that contributes to inhibition of Clostridium perfringens outgrowth from spores. |
| Albright SN, Kendall PA, Avens JS, Sofos JN (2003) Pretreatment effect on inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated beef jerky. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Und-Technologie-Food Science and Technology 36 (4):381-389. | HT/SS | Whole-muscle beef jerky slices | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment, see below) Antimicrobial (Pickling brine, vinegar; see below) Water activity control Specifically, jerky was treated with the following pre-treatments: 1. Immersing in boiling water (94°C, 15 sec), then marinating (4°C, 24 h) 2. Seasoning (4°C, 24 h), then immersing in a pickling brine (78°C, 90 sec) 3. Immersing in a vinegar/water (750:750 mL) solution (57.5°C, 20 sec), then marinating (4°C, 24 h) F5 4. Marinating (4°C, 24 h), then immersing in a vinegar/water (750:750 mL) solution (57.5°C, 20 sec) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Pre-treatment times: see Process/Intervention column · Drying time: 0 to 10 h · Storage time: 30 to 90 days Temperature: · Pre-treatment temperature: see Process/Intervention column · Drying temperature: 62.5°C · Storage temperature: 21°C Concentration: see Process/Intervention column; see the reference for marinade, seasoning, and pickling brine composition Humidity: 19-24% RH during drying and storage Water Activity: · All jerky after pre-treatments: 0.92-0.94 · After drying 10 hours: 0.59 to 0.75 · After storage 90 days: 0.52 to 0.64 pH: · Marinade pH was 4.3 · All jerky after pre-treatments: 5.20 to 5.91 · After drying 10 hours: 5.39 to 6.00 · After storage 90 days: 5.18 to 5.97 Contact Time: Pretreatment contact times varied; see Process/Intervention column Other: Home food dehydrators were used |
Time Drying time up to 4 hours Storage time Concentration Concentration of ingredients in pre-treatments |
All pre-treatments resulted in significant pathogen reductions, with treatment 2 reducing pathogen levels up to 4.1 log CFU/cm2 prior to drying and up to 5.8 log CFU/cm2 total reductions after drying. For all jerky treatments, the inoculated pathogen was undetectable after 30 days of storage and remained so through 90 days. Pathogen levels did not change much (≥0.8 log CFU/cm2) after 4 hours of drying. |
| Ayari S, Dussault D, Hamdi M, Lacroix M (2016) Growth and toxigenic potential of Bacillus cereus during storage temperature abuse in cooked irradiated chicken rice in combination with nisin and carvacrol. LWT-Food Science and Technology 72:19-25. | FC/NSS | Cooked chicken with rice | Chicken | Bacillus cereus | Antimicrobials (Nisin and carvacrol) Irradiation (Gamma) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin production |
Time: 15 days storage Temperature: 10°C Concentration: 156 to 625 ppm carvacrol; 312 to 1250 IU/g nisin Other: 0 to 1.8 kGy gamma irradiation at a dose rate of 15.6 kGy/h |
Concentration: · Carvacrol (156 to 625 ppm) · Nisin (312 to 1250 IU/g) Irradiation dose: 0.9 to 1.8 kGy |
Combinations of low irradiation doses with moderate concentrations of antimicrobial agents significantly decreased B. cereus levels and prevented toxin formation until Day 12 of storage at 10°C. |
| Aymerich T, Jofre A, Garriga M, Hugas M (2005) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella by natural antimicrobials and high hydrostatic pressure in sliced cooked ham. Journal of Food Protection 68 (1):173-177. |
FC/NSS | Sliced cooked ham made from minced pork shoulder | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. |
Antimicrobials (Nisin A, potassium lactate) High-pressure processing |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Storage for 3 months · HPP treatment for 10 min Temperature: · Storage at 1°C or 6°C · HPP at 17°C Concentration: · NaCl (20.7 g/kg), NaNO2 (0.1 g/kg ingoing), and ascorbate (0.6 g/kg) in all formulations. · In some batches, nisin A at 44.85 ppm or potassium lactate at 1.8% were also added to the product. Spatial Configuration: Sliced at 1.5 mm thickness Pressure: 400 MPa, 17°C, 10 min Other: Vacuum packaged |
Concentration: Potassium lactate at 1.8% Pressure: 400 MPa, 17°C for 10 minutes Temperature: 1°C and 6°C storage temperature |
A synergistic inhibitory effect of potassium lactate, HPP, and low storage temperature on Listeria monocytogenes growth was observed. HPP also inhibited Salmonella growth during storage. No growth occurred with HPP and potassium lactate at 1°C, although growth did occur at 6°C. Nisin allowed growth. |
| Baccus-Taylor G, Glass KA, Luchansky JB, Maurer AJ (1993) Fate of Listeria monocytogenes and Pediococcal starter cultures during the manufacture of chicken summer sausage. Poultry Sci 72 (9):1772-1778. | HT/SS | Chicken summer sausage in two formulations: 100% hand-deboned chicken meat (HDCM) 85% hand-deboned chicken meat and 15% chicken hearts (HDCM-CH) |
Chicken | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) pH control (Pediococcus acidilactici starter cultures) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Fermentation time: 11 hr · Cooking time: 45 min at 66.5°C · Storage time: 60 days at 4°C or 7 days at 30°C Temperature: · Fermentation: 37°C · Sausage internal temperature during cooking: 66.5°C · Storage temperatures: 4 or 30°C Humidity: 85% RH during fermentation Water Activity: 0.99 before fermentation, 0.96 after fermentation pH:6.5 before fermentation, 5.0 at end of fermentation Product Coverage: Starter cultures were added to poultry when making sausage batter prior to fermentation Spatial Configuration: 250 g chubs Other: 107 cfu/g Pediococcus acidilactici, either pediocin production (PED+) or non-pediocin producing (PED-) Final moisture, fat, protein, and ash levels were 65.1, 9.3, 20.5, and 3.2%, respectively, for the HDCM formulation and 65.6, 11.7, 18.8, and 3.5%, respectively, for the HDCM-CH formulation. |
Time: Temperature: Cooking time of 45 min at an internal temperature of 66.5°C eliminated any L. monocytogenes throughout either set of storage conditions Water Activity: 0.96 after fermentation pH: 5.0 after fermentation Other: Starter culture added to yield ~7 log CFU/g |
Both the PED- and PED+ starter cultures reduced L. monocytogenes levels during fermentation, with greater reductions (2.6 log/g) with PED+ cultures than with PED- cultures (1.2 log/g). Demonstrates differences between starter cultures in reducing populations of L. monocytogenes during fermentation; cooking eliminated surviving pathogen. |
| Bang WS, Chung HJ, Jin SS, Ding T, Hwang IG, Woo GJ, Ha SD, Bahk GJ, Oh DH (2008) Prediction of Listeria monocytogenes growth kinetics in sausages formulated with antimicrobials as a function of temperature and concentrations. Food Science and Biotechnology 17 (6):1316-1321. | NHT/SS | Raw sausages requiring cooking before consumption | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium sorbate [PS], potassium lactate [PL], and combined PL and sodium diacetate [SDA]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 27 days at 4°C, 10 days at 10°C, 7 days at 16°C, and 1 day at 25°C Temperature: 4, 10, 16, and 25°C Concentration: · All formulations contained 17g NaCl/kg sausage · 0, 0.1, and 0.2% PS; 2 and 4% PL, and 2 and 4% PLSDA (PLSDA=56% PL and 4% SDA) Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were added during sausage formulation Spatial Configuration: 10 g slices of sausages Other: Sausages were stored in whirl-packs |
Temperature: See below Concentration: See below At 4°C and 10°C, no growth of Lm was observed with another of the antimicrobials except 0.1 and 0.2% PS At 16°C and 25°C, Lm growth was inhibited by 1 to 4.5 log relative to controls, with 4% PLSDA being the most effective, followed by 2% PLSDA and 4% PL. |
The paper uses the data collected to develop polynomial models for the specific growth rates and lag phase periods for Lm in air-dried raw sausages for each of the antimicrobials tested at temperatures from 4 to 25°C. See paper for details on these specific models. |
| Barakat RK, Harris LJ (1999) Growth of Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica on cooked modified-atmosphere-packaged poultry in the presence and absence of a naturally occurring microbiota. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65 (1):342-345. | FC/NSS | Cooked, modified-atmosphere-packaged chicken legs | Chicken | Listeria monocytogenes Yersinia enterocolitica |
Antimicrobials (ALTA2341 and lactate) Heat treatment (Post-lethality treatment by hot packaging) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 5 weeks of storage Temperature: · Cooking temperature: 82°C internal temperature · Storage temperature: 3.5, 6.5, or 10°C Concentration: Sodium lactate (3% wt/wt in final cooked product); ALTA 2341 at 0.5% (wt/wt) in the final cooked product pH: 6.3 Product Coverage: Chicken legs were injected with a brine in which the sodium lactate and ALTA 2340 was present prior to cooking Spatial Configuration: Chicken legs with bone and skin Other: · Product was either hot- or cold-packaged prior to storage · Modified atmosphere (44:56 CO2 to N2) packaging (nylon-ethylene vinyl acetate bags) |
Temperature: 3.5, 6.5, and 10°C Concentration: Sodium lactate (3% wt/wt in final cooked product); ALTA 2341 at 0.5% (wt/wt) in the final cooked product |
The combination of sodium lactate and ALTA 2341 added to the brine extended the lag phase of L. monocytogenes by 10 days at 3.5°C and 1-2 days at the higher temperatures. This combination also extended the lag phase of Y. enterocolitica by 3 days at 3.5°C. The effectiveness of these antimicrobials was lower at higher storage temperatures. Cold-packaging (which allowed for naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria to grow) did not affect the growth of L. monocytogenes or Y. enterocolitica. |
| Barbut S, Tanaka N, Cassens RG, Maurer AJ (1986) Effects of sodium chloride reduction and polyphosphate addition on Clostridium botulinum toxin production in turkey frankfurters. Journal of Food Science 51 (5):1136-1138. | FC/NSS | Turkey frankfurters | Turkey | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (NaCl, tripolyphosphate [TPP], hexametaphosphate [HMP], sodium acid pyrophosphate [SAPP] |
Prevention of toxin production | Time: up to 6 days storage at 27°C Temperature: 27°C storage temperature Concentration: (in frankfurter formulation) · NaCl: 1.0 to 3.0% · TPP: 0 to 0.4% · HMP: 0 to 0.4% · SAPP: 0 to 0.4% · NaNO2: 0.015% in all formulations Water Activity: 0.97 to 0.98 pH: 6.15 to 6.57 Product Coverage: in formulation Other: Frankfurters were 13.9% protein, 11.6% fat, 71.5% moisture, and 1.3% ash |
Time: Storage time at 27°C Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of NaCl and polyphosphates |
Twelve combinations of NaCl and polyphosphates were tested in turkey wiener formulations. Reduction in NaCl concentration from 3.0% to 1.0% resulted in earlier production of botulinum toxin when stored at 27°C. SAPP, but not the other polyphosphates tested, delayed toxin production when combined with NaCl when compared to NaCl-only formulations. |
| Barmpalia IM, Koutsoumanis KP, Geornaras I, Belk KE, Scanga JA, Kendall PA, Smith GC, Sofos JN (2005) Effect of antimicrobials as ingredients of pork bologna for Listeria monocytogenes control during storage at 4 or 10 degrees C. Food Microbiology 22 (2-3):205-211. | FC/NSS | Bologna | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Refrigeration) Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, sodium diacetate, and glucono-delta-lactone) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: ≤ 20 days of storage Temperature: Storage at 4° or 10°C Concentration: · All formulations included (% wt/wt) NaCl (2), ingoing sodium nitrite (0.0156), dry mustard (0.9), sodium erythorbate (0.05) · Antimicrobials were added to some formulations at 1.8% sodium lactate (SL), 0.125% or 0.25% sodium diacetate (SD), and/or 0.125% or 0.25% glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) Water Activity: 0.938 to 0.972 pH: initial pH was 6.57 to 6.61 without antimicrobials; pH decreased upon addition of antimicrobials and upon storage Product Coverage: In formulation Spatial Configuration: 65 mm diameter cellulose casings, 5 mm thick slices Other: Vacuum packaging in a nylon/PE pouch |
Concentration: 1.8% SL with 0.25% SD was the most effective against pathogen growth at both temperatures, followed by the combination of 1.8% SL, 0.125% SD, and 0.125% GDL Temperature: Storage temperature |
In the absence of antimicrobials, faster growth was observed at 10°C Different combinations of antimicrobials maintained their effectiveness to different extents when the temperature was increased to 10°C Different results suggesting better efficacy were obtained for 1.8% SL in combination with 0.25% SD or 0.25% GDL in the Samelis 2002 study possibly because of the difference in meat products tested (frankfurters in that study vs. bologna in this study). See Samelis J, Bedie GK, Sofos JN, Belk KE, Scanga JA, Smith GC (2002) Control of Listeria monocytogenes with combined antimicrobials after postprocess contamination and extended storage of frankfurters at 4 degrees C in vacuum packages. Journal of Food Protection 65 (2):299-307. |
| Bedie GK, Samelis J, Sofos JN, Belk KE, Scanga JA, Smith GC (2001) Antimicrobials in the formulation to control Listeria monocytogenes postprocessing contamination on frankfurters stored at 4 degrees C in vacuum packages. Journal of Food Protection 64 (12):1949-1955. | FC/NSS | Frankfurters | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, sodium acetate, sodium diacetate) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: ≥ 120 days of storage Temperature: 4°C storage Concentration: All formulations included (% wt/wt) NaCl (2), sodium nitrite (0.0156), dry mustard (0.9), sodium erythorbate (0.05); antimicrobials were added to some formulations at 0.25 or 0.5% sodium acetate (SA), 0.25 or 0.5% sodium diacetate (SD), and 3 or 6% sodium lactate (SL) Water Activity: 0.972 without antimicrobials; 0.933 to 0.969 with antimicrobials pH: Initial pH was 6.33 without antimicrobials; pH decreased with 0.5% SD and upon storage Contact Time: In formulation Spatial Configuration: 24 mm casings, 11 cm length Other: Vacuum packaging (nylon/PE pouch) |
Concentration: · 3% sodium lactate controlled growth for at least 70 days · 0.25% sodium diacetate controlled growth for at least 35 days · 0.25% sodium acetate controlled growth for at least 20 days Temperature: 4°C storage temperature |
Higher concentrations of all antimicrobials prolonged the time that growth was controlled, but are not permitted by USDA FSIS (FSIS Directive 7120.1 Revision 38) |
| Bello J, Sanchez-Fuertes MA (1995) Application of a mathematical model for the inhibition of Enterobacteriaceae and clostridia during a sausage curing process. Journal of Food Protection 58 (12):1345-1350. | NHT/SS | Spanish dry fermented sausage (chorizo) | Pork | Enterobacteriaceae Clostridia |
Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Curing time: up to 17 days Temperature: Natural drying conditions (12 to 24°C) or controlled conditions (22°C to 14°C) Concentration: Curing salts (130 ppm nitrate and 130 ppm nitrite) were present in the formulation at 24 g/kg Humidity: Natural drying conditions (78 to 95% RH) or controlled conditions (80% to 73%) Water Activity: measured but not specified pH: measured but not specified Spatial Configuration: 70 mm diameter reconstituted collagen casings |
Water Activity pH Other: Levels of lactobacilli present |
Clostridia disappeared from the dry fermented sausage at earlier time points during curing than did enterobacteria. Enterobacteria begin to disappear when the pH falls below 5.0 and the water activity is <0.940. Predictive models for levels of enterobacteria in the sausage were developed which incorporate water activity, pH, lactobacilli levels present. The model uses a Gompertz equation to predict reduction in Enterobacteriaceae counts. Enterobacteria count was dependent upon pH, water activity, and lactobacilli. When drying with climate control, enteorbacteria counts also depended upon pH, water activity, and lactobacilli, although a different formula was used |
| Benkerroum N, Daoudi A, Hamraoui T, Ghalfi H, Thiry C, Duroy M, Evrart P, Roblain D, Thonart P (2005) Lyophilized preparations of bacteriocinogenic Lactobacillus curvatus and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis as potential protective adjuncts to control Listeria monocytogenes in dry-fermented sausages. Journal of Applied Microbiology 98 (1):56-63. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausage | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Bacteriocins produced from strains of Lactobacillus curvatus LBPE and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis LMG21206) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Fermentation time: 48 hr Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 30°C · Drying temperature: 14 to 16°C Concentration: · All sausage formulations contained 28 g NaCl, 0.3 g sodium nitrate (ingoing), and 5 g lyophilized starter culture. · Some formulations also contained Lactobacillus curvatus LBPE or Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis LMG21206 Humidity: · Fermentation: 85 to 90% RH · Drying: 75 to 80% RH pH: 6.0 before fermentation; ~5.3 after drying for all formulations Spatial Configuration: 34 mm diameter sausages clipped every 12 to 15 cm Other: · Semi-synthetic casing was used · During drying, sausages lost between 49 and 52% of their initial weight by Day 19 |
Lb. curvatus LBPE was more inhibitory against L. monocytogenes than was Lc. lactis LMG21206. The mechanism of their inhibition was by in situ bacteriocin production. |
|
| Beuchat LR (1981) Microbial stability as affected by water activity. Cereal Foods World 26 (7):345-349. | TP/CS NHT/SS HT/SS FC/NSS NFC/NSS |
All | Beef Pork Poultry |
Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella spp. Clostridium botulinum Bacillus cereus |
Water activity control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin production |
Water Activity: Various levels above 0.86 | Water Activity: · 0.86 for S. aureus · 0.93 for Salmonella spp. · 0.93 for C. botulinum · 0.93 for B. cereus |
Higher water activities are necessary to support toxin production (e.g. 0.87 for staphylococcal enterotoxin A; 0.94 for botulinum toxins A and B). Pathogens can survive at the water activity limits stated even if they do not grow. |
| Beverlya RL, Janes ME, Prinyawlwatkula W, No HK (2008) Edible chitosan films on ready-to-eat roast beef for the control of Listeria monocytogenes. Food Microbiology 25 (3):534-537. |
FC/NSS | Ready-to-eat roast beef | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Chitosan dissolved with acetic or lactic acid) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 0 to 28 days of storage Temperature: 4°C Concentration: Chitosan (MW 470 kDa or 1106 kDa) under the following conditions: · 1% (w/v) chitosan (high MW) in 1% (v/v) lactic acid · 1% (w/v) chitosan (low MW) in 1% (v/v) lactic acid · 0.5% (w/v) chitosan (high MW) in 0.5% (v/v) lactic acid · 0.5% (w/v) chitosan (low MW) in 0.5% (v/v) lactic acid · 1% (w/v) chitosan (high MW) in 1% (v/v) acetic acid · 1% (w/v) chitosan (low MW) in 1% (v/v) acetic acid · 0.5% (w/v) chitosan (high MW) in 0.5% (v/v) acetic acid · 0.5% (w/v) chitosan (low MW) in 0.5% (v/v) acetic acid Dwell Time: Roast beef cubes were dipped in chitosan solutions for 30 s, then allowed to dry pH: Chitosan solutions were adjusted to 5.6 Product Coverage: Roast beef cubes were dipped in chitosan solutions Spatial Configuration: 5 g cubes of cooked roast beef |
Concentration: Chitosan and acid concentrations as shown to the left |
On day 14, all samples with chitosan showed >1 log less growth relative to uncoated (without chitosan or lactic or acetic acid) control. On days 21 and 28, all chitosan samples with acetic acid showed >2 logs less growth relative to uncoated control. Reductions for chitosan samples with lactic acid were smaller (0.4 to 1.22). Few significant differences were observed between high MW vs. low MW chitin treatments. A relatively high inoculum level was used in this study. |
| Blankenship LC, Craven SE (1982) Campylobacter jejuni survival in chicken meat as a function of temperature. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 44 (1):88-92. | FC/NSS | Autoclaved ground chicken breast meat | Chicken | Campylobacter jejuni | Temperature control (Heat treatment, refrigeration) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Up to 18 days of storage Temperature: · Thermal treatments: 51 to 57°C · Storage temperature: 4, 23, 37, or 43 °C Other: Storage occurred under ambient atmosphere conditions |
For pathogen reduction: Time: Heating time Temperature: Heating temperature For inhibition of pathogen growth during storage: Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature |
D-values were higher in chicken meat than in peptone broth. D-values for C. jejuni (composite strains) in chicken meat ranged from 9.27 min at 51°C to 0.98 min at 57°C The study concludes that typical cooking methods that kill Salmonella on chicken will also kill C. jejuni Storage of C. jejuni-inoculated ground chicken that was previously autoclaved showed a complicated temperature relationship. · Storage at 4°C resulted in slow decline of 1-2 logs over 17 days · Storage at 37°C resulted in initial 1-2 log growth followed by gradual 1-log decline over 17 days storage · Storage at 43°C resulted in no growth and a decline to non-detectable levels between 10-16 days |
| Blom H, Nerbrink E, Dainty R, Hagtvedt T, Borch E, Nissen H, Nesbakken T (1997) Addition of 2.5% lactate and 0.25% acetate controls growth of Listeria monocytogenes in vacuum-packed, sensory-acceptable servelat sausage and cooked ham stored at 4 degrees C. International Journal of Food Microbiology 38 (1):71-76. | FC/NSS | Sliced servelat (cervelat) sausage Cooked ham |
Beef and pork Pork |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate and sodium acetate mixture) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 5 weeks storage time Temperature: 4 and 9°C during storage Concentration: (in % weight of the water content of the product) Servelat contained 2.5% w/v NaCl in the formulation; antimicrobials tested were a mixture of 2.5% sodium lactate and 0.25% sodium acetate pH: 6.4 in servelat Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed into the formulation Other: Both products were vacuum-packed during storage |
Temperature: Storage temperature Time: Storage time Concentration: Presence of antimicrobials |
2.5% sodium lactate +0.25% sodium acetate prevented growth of L. monocytogenes in both the servelat and the cooked ham when stored at 4°C and in the servelat when stored at 9°C throughout the 5-week study. However, at the higher temperature (9°C), the sodium lactate with sodium acetate in cooked ham only prevented growth for 2-3 weeks of storage. Propylparaben was also tested; while it inhibited bacterial growth in liquid media, it did not affect growth in the meat products tested, possibly because it localized in the product’s lipid phase. In broth, growth inhibition by the antimicrobials was pH dependent. |
| Borneman DL, Ingham SC, Ane C (2009) Predicting growth-no growth of Staphylococcus aureus on vacuum-packaged ready-to-eat meats. Journal of Food Protection 72 (3):539-548. |
NHT/SS HT/SS NFC/NSS |
Ready-to-eat meats (34 products which included summer sausage, salami, jerky, Landjaeger sausages, and meat sticks | Not specified | Staphylococcus aureus | pH control Water activity control Other (Additional formulation characteristics, including percentage water-phase salt [%WPS] and moisture/protein ratio [MPR]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 28 days storage Temperature: 21°C storage temperature Water Activity: 0.68 to 0.98 pH: 4.4 to 6.4 Other: · % Water phase salt : 1.47 to 19.00 · MPR: 0.39 to 3.30 · Vacuum packaged |
Water Activity pH Other: % Water phase salt |
Values for pH and either water activity or %WPS are required parameters to use the predictive equations developed from this study . Two predictive equations were developed, both of which described S. aureus growth in ready-to-eat meats: 1. Using pH and aw values: Pr=exp[–59.36 + (5.75·pH) + (28.73·aw)]/{1 + [exp(–59.36 + (5.75·pH) + (28.73·aw)]} 2. Using pH and %WPS: Pr=exp[–26.93 + (5.38·pH) + (–0.61·%WPS)]/{1 + exp[–26.93 + (5.38·pH) + (–0.61·%WPS)]} |
| Borowski AG, Ingham SC, Ingham BH (2009) Validation of ground-and-formed beef jerky processes using commercial lactic acid bacteria starter cultures as pathogen surrogates. Journal of Food Protection 72 (6):1234-1247. | FC/NSS | Ground-and-formed beef jerky | Beef | Salmonella spp. E. coli O157:H7 Commercial lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as surrogates for those pathogens |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) Water activity control (Drying) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Variable; total times ranged 175 to 420 min for the various processes tested Temperature: Variable, ranging from 49.4°C to 91.1°C (actual dry bulb temperature at some point during cooking for the various processes tested) Humidity: Variable, web bulb temperatures ranged from 13.9°C to 77.8 Water Activity: Variable for each process; ranged from 0.67 to 0.90 Spatial Configuration: Jerky strips measured 12.7 x 2.5 x 0.7 cm; raw strips weighed 22.8 g Other: With and without smoke |
Humidity: Various Temperature: Various Time: Various The study tested 11 processes covering a range of times, temperatures, and relative humidity levels and found that adequate lethality against Salmonella or E. coli O157:H7 was most consistently achieved when both a high-humidity step and a high dry bulb temperature step were combined. See paper for details |
A ≥5.0 log reduction in either commercial LAB (Saga 200 or Biosource) was appropriate to indicate a ≥5.0 log reduction in either Salmonella or E. coli O157:H7. These LAB could therefore be used as a pathogen surrogates for heating and drying processes for beef jerky. |
| Bover-Cid S, Belletti N, Aymerich T, Garriga M (2015) Modeling the protective effect of a(w) and fat content on the high pressure resistance of Listeria monocytogenes in dry-cured ham. Food Research International 75:194-199. |
NHT/SS | Dry-cured ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Water activity control High-pressure processing |
Pathogen reduction | Time: 5 min (for HPP processing) Temperature: 15°C (initial fluid temperature during HPP processing) Water Activity: 0.86 to 0.96 Spatial Configuration: minced, deboned ham Pressure: 347 to 852 MPa Other: Fat content of 10 to 50% Pressure come up rate was 220 MPa/min on average; pressure release was almost immediate |
Water Activity Pressure Other: Fat Content |
The pressure resistance of L. monocytogenes in dry-cured ham is higher than in other foods. Higher pressure and water activity resulted in greater reductions of Listeria. Fat content provided a “protective’ effective – this was illustrated by a curvilinear response with a maximum around 30% fat. Fat was protective against L. monocytogenes inactivation at pressures >~700 MPa, while greater inactivation occurred at lower pressures when fat content was >30%. A predictive equation was developed based on the data collected in the study: Water activity, pressure, and fat content are parameters needed to use the predictive model developed based on this study The contour plots may be quite useful in designing a process to inactivate L. monocytogenes. For example, if 600 MPa was the maximum capability of the machine and 25% fat, and 0.92 water activity, the predicted reduction would be between 4 and 5 log reductions. |
| Bover-Cid S, Belletti N, Aymerich T, Garriga M (2017) Modelling the impact of water activity and fat content of dry-cured ham on the reduction of Salmonella enterica by high pressure processing. Meat science 123:120-125. | NHT/SS | Dry-cured ham | Pork | Salmonella spp. | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: Pressure hold time was 5 min Temperature: 15°C at start of HPP Water Activity: 0.86 to 0.96 pH: 5.87 Spatial Configuration: 15 g product portions in vacuum packaged PET/PE plastic bags Pressure: 347 to 852 MPa; average come up pressure was 220 MPa/min, while release was immediate Other: Fat content varied between 10 to 50% |
Water activity: Pressure: At ≥600 MPa, high lethality (6-log reduction) was observed for high water activity (≥0.96) dry-cured ham At the same pressures, a 4-log reduction was observed for a product with a water activity of 0.91 A lower pressure (500 to 550 MPa) could reduce Salmonella numbers by 4 logs at a water activity between 0.925 and 0.958 |
Fat content did not have a large effect on HPP’s ability to inactivate Salmonella in this study in dry-cured ham. At pressures of up to 450 MPa, log reductions in Salmonella numbers ranged from 1.41 to 3. The study also used Response Surface Methodology to develop a model that included water activity, pressure, and fat content as variables and one that included water activity and pressure as variables. |
| Bover-Cid S, Belletti N, Garriga M, Aymerich T (2012) Response surface methodology to investigate the effect of high pressure processing on Salmonella inactivation on dry-cured ham. Food Research International 45 (2):1111-1117. | NHT/SS | Dry-cured ham (without bone) | Pork | Salmonella spp. | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: · HPP holding time: 2.3 to 15.75 min · HPP pressure come-up rate averaged 220 MPa/min · HPP pressure release: almost immediate Temperature: Initial HPP fluid temperature: 7.6 to 24.4°C Water Activity: 0.88 pH: 5.84 Spatial Configuration: 25 to 27 g slices Pressure: 347 to 852 MPa |
Time: HPP holding time Temperature: Initial HPP fluid temperature Pressure: Holding pressure during HPP treatment |
Highest levels of inactivation (>6 log reductions) were observed at pressures of 750 MPa at 21°C. Other conditions resulted in at least a 2-log inactivation of Salmonella. Predictive models for the inactivation of Salmonella in dry-cured ham were developed which included which utilized pressure level, HPP holding time, and initial HPP fluid temperature as variables. Pressure and time were the main factors influencing inactivation of Salmonella on selective media Increasing pressure and temperature increased lethality of the process. When validated, the accuracy and bias factors were acceptable. Contour plots of pressure by time are useful in defining these conditions to get the inactivation desired. For example, one can achieve a four log reduction in five minutes at a pressure of ca.700 MPa. |
| Bowen VG, Cerveny JG, Deibel RH (1974) Effect of sodium ascorbate and sodium nitrite on toxin formation of Clostridium botulinum in wieners. Applied Microbiology 27 (3):605-606. | FC/NSS | Frankfurters | Pork and beef | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite and sodium ascorbate) |
Prevention of toxin production | Time: storage up to 56 days Temperature: storage temperature of 28°C Concentration: In wiener formulation: · All contained 2.52% salt · Sodium nitrite: 1 to 150 mg/g · Sodium ascorbate: 0 to 655 mg/g Other: Moisture content was 53.2%, protein content was 11.2%, fat content was 28.9% after thermally processing |
Concentration: Sodium nitrite concentrations of 100 and 150 mg/g in wieners prevented toxin formation in wieners. |
Sodium ascorbate neither inhibited nor potentiated the effects of sodium nitrite on C. botulinum toxin formation in wieners. Samples containing ≤50 mg/g sodium nitrite began to show toxicity after 7 days of incubation. |
| Breslin TJ, Tenorio-Bernal MI, Marks BP, Booren AM, Ryser ET, Hall NO (2014) Evaluation of Salmonella thermal inactivation model validity for slow cooking of whole-muscle meat roasts in a pilot-scale oven. Journal of Food Protection 77 (11):1897-1903. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Whole muscle roasts: Turkey breast, top round of beef, center-cut pork loin | Beef Pork Turkey |
Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Cooking time: 86 to 253 min Temperature: · Cooking temperature: 60 to 93.3°C · Endpoint core temperature: 71.1°C Humidity: ~20 to 78% RH during cooking Spatial Configuration: Whole muscle roasts Other: · Equipment: cooking was done in a pilot-scale, moist-air convection oven · Moisture content was 68.5 to 74%. · Fat content was 1.05 to 9.99% |
Temperature: Endpoint core temperature |
Slow cooking at sub-lethal temperatures was evaluated in 7 different cooking schedules: 1. in-bag, constant air temp, low humidity 2. in-bag, constant air temp, high humidity, 3. in-bag, step-up temp, low humidity 4. in-bag, step-up temp, high humidity 5. out-of-bag, constant air temp, high humidity 6. out-of-bag, step-up temp, high humidity 7. out-of-bag, step-up temp, changing humidity When processed to core temperatures of 71.1°C, near-complete elimination of Salmonella was observed for all inoculated roasts, even when slow cooking of whole-muscle roasts. State-dependent (as opposed to path-dependent) models are likely to overestimate Salmonella lethality during slow cooking of whole-muscle roasts, likely due to the impact of sub-lethal heating. |
| Buege DR, Searls G, Ingham SC (2006) Lethality of commercial whole-muscle beef jerky manufacturing processes against Salmonella serovars and Escherichia coli O157:H7. Journal of Food Protection 69 (9):2091-2099. | HT/SS | Whole-muscle jerky | Beef | Salmonella spp. E. coli O157:H7 |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) Water activity control |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Marinating time: 22 to 24 hours Heating and drying time (various, see reference) Temperature: Marinating temperature: 5°C Heating and drying temperatures (various, see reference) Concentration: Jerky marinade was formulated to generate (wt/wt) 2% NaCl, 2% sucrose, and 156 ppm sodium nitrite preprocessing concentrations in the meat Relative humidity: Various, see reference Water Activity: various depending on the many processes tested. After drying, water activity ranged from 0.68 to 0.96 pH: Jerky marinade was at pH 5.3; finished jerky had a pH of 5.6 to 6.1 Product Coverage: Marinade was added to strip surface by tumbling manually together in a zip-lock plastic bag for 5 min Spatial Configuration: 5 to 7 mm thick |
Time: Heating and drying time Temperature: Heating: 51.7°C to 60°C (wet bulb); 48.9 to 76.7°C (dry bulb) Drying: 76.7°C (dry bulb) Relative Humidity: 19-56% |
Marinating meat prior to heating and drying contributed little to lethality. “Pathogen reductions of ≥6.4 log CFU were best achieved by ensuring that high wet-bulb temperatures were reached and maintained early in the process (51.7 or 54.4°C for 60 min, 57.2°C for 30 min, or 60°C for 10 min) followed by drying at 76.7°C (dry-bulb temperature). Processes with less lethality that reduced counts of both pathogens by ≥5.0 log CFU were (i) heating and drying at 76.7°C (dry bulb) within 90 min of beginning the process, (ii) heating for successive hourly intervals at 48.9, 54.4, 60, and 76.7°C (dry bulb), and (iii) heating at 51.7°C (dry bulb) and then drying at 76.7°C (dry bulb), starting before the product water activity dropped below 0.86”. |
| Buncic S, Paunovic L, Radisic D (1991) The fate of Listeria monocytogenes in fermented sausages and in vacuum-packaged frankfurters. Journal of Food Protection 54 (6):413-417. | NHT/SS FC/NSS |
Fermented pork and beef sausages | Pork and beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Water activity control pH control (Fermentation) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Ripening of sausages: 4 days · Drying of sausages: 11 days · Storage of sausages: 20 days Temperature: · Ripening of sausages: 18 to 20°C · Drying of sausages: 18°C · Storage of sausages: 18 to 22°C Concentration: Sausage formulation contained 2.5 kg NaCl, 300 g glucono-deltalactone, 200 g glucose, 30 g ascorbic acid, and 10 g sodium nitrite per 100 kg of meat/fat Humidity: · Ripening of sausages: 88 to 95% RH · Drying of sausages: 75% RH Water Activity: Sausage: 0.974 (initial) to 0.933 after drying pH: Sausage: 5.47 (initial pH) to 4.80 after ripening, eventually reaching 4.60 after drying and storage Frankfurters: Not measured Spatial Configuration: 35 mm diameter for sausages Other: · Initial Lactobacillus levels in sausage was 1.2 x 107 CFU/g · Sausage chemical analysis: 48.8% moisture, 32.3% fat, 5.5% protein, 2.4% NaCl; 85.2 ppm nitrites · Casing permeability to oxygen was 9,415.3 NTP cm3/m2 24 hr bar |
Water activity: Following drying pH control: Lowered pH due to natural lactobacilli present in meat; bacteriocins may have also contributed to the protection against L. monocytogenes growth |
When inoculated at high levels, L. monocytogenes numbers dropped from 8 x 106 CFU/g after inoculation to 1.1 x 104 CFU/g at end of processing. L. monocytogenes numbers dropped in parallel with the pH drop during the first 4 days of ripening, but could survive during storage. High initial numbers of Lactobacillus spp. likely prevented the growth of L. monocytogenes. The report also includes a separate study demonstrating that L. monocytogenes can survive and grow in vacuum-packaged frankfurters stored at 4°C. |
| Burnham GM, Fanslau MA, Ingham SC (2006) Evaluating microbial safety of slow partial-cooking processes for bacon: Use of a predictive tool based on small-scale isothermal meat inoculation studies. Journal of Food Protection 69 (3):602-608. | NFC/NSS | Cured, pumped pork bellies (bacon) | Pork | Salmonella spp. E. coli O157:H7 Staphylococcus aureus |
Temperature control (Slow partial cooking) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: 0 to 18 hours of partial-cooking processes Temperature: Product interior was 21 to 46°C during the partial cooking process to mimic a commercial process, with no further details given Concentration: Ingoing nitrite level of 119 ppm; the raw pork belly was pumped with a cure solution to increase weight by 11% Humidity: Slow partial cooking was conducted under high humidity or low humidity; actual values not specified pH: 6.2 Spatial Configuration: Pork bellies, inoculated either on the surface or by injection in separate experiments Other: Average pork belly composition was 46.9% moisture and 1.6% salt (3.4% water-phase salt) |
Time: Temperature: No meaningful pathogen growth occurred for any of the tested organisms inoculated either on the surface or injected during the 18 hours of slow partial cooking at either low or high humidity The IBT model estimates 720 min at 21°C (S. aureus), 120 min at 40.6°C (E. coli O157:H7), and 288 min at 21°C to 38 min at 35°C (Salmonella serovars) as estimated critical times for each pathogen. |
The IBT (isothermal-based tool developed in this study using fresh ground pork) and the USDA Pathogen Modeling Program 7.0 (with either actual [PMP] or conservative [PMPP] compositional values added) were fail-safe and predicted pathogen growth under conditions where meaningful growth did not occur. However, the IBT is most conservative and since it was developed using a food matrix rather than media may be more acceptable. |
| Burnham GM, Hanson DJ, Koshick CM, Ingham SC (2008) Death of Salmonella serovars, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes during the drying of meat: A case study using biltong and droewors. Journal of Food Safety 28 (2):198-209. | NHT/SS | Biltong and droewors (shelf-stable ready-to-eat dried beef products related to jerky) | Beef | Salmonella spp. E. coli O157:H7 Staphylococcus aureus Listeria monocytogenes |
Water activity control (Drying) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Drying phase: 12–21 days (droewors) 17–26 days (biltong), then 7 days in vacuum packaging Temperature: 20–22°C during initial drying phase and after vacuum packaging Humidity: 50% (target; actual range was 38-64%) during drying phase Water Activity: 0.62–0.75 (biltong); 0.60 –0.62 (droewors) pH: 5.5–5.6 (biltong); 5.4–5.5 (droewors) Spatial Configuration: Biltong: fresh meat was initially 2.5 cm thick Other: MPR: 0.31:1– 0.50:1 for biltong; 0.27:1– 0.30:1 for droewors; % water-phase salt: 15.4– 21.5 for biltong; 19.1–22.2 for droewors % fat: 9.1% for biltong; 35.6% for droewors Product was vacuum packaged |
Time (drying time): 12–21 days (droewors) 17–26 days (biltong) Temperature: 20–22°C during drying Humidity: 38 to 64% during drying |
“Conditions tested could meet the alternative USDA lethality standard of a ≥2 log reduction in E. coli O157:H7 if the starting material tested negative for this material, or could be used with other interventions towards meeting the 5-log lethality standard.” Lower lethality was observed for the droewors, possibly due to its high fat content |
| Byelashov OA, Carlson BA, Geornaras I, Kendall PA, Scanga JA, Sofos JN (2009) Fate of post-processing inoculated Listeria monocytogenes on vacuum-packaged pepperoni stored at 4, 12 or 25 degrees C. Food Microbiology 26 (1):77-81. | HT/SS | Pepperoni slices | Pork and beef mixture | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Storage temperature) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Up to 180 days Temperature: 4, 12, or 25°C Water Activity: 0.827 pH: 4.50 to 4.81 (throughout storage) Spatial Configuration: 2 mm thick slices from a 48 mm diameter sausage, with 3 pepperoni slices stacked on top of each other in the packaged product Other: Vacuum packaging (3 mil std barrier nylon polyethylene vacuum pouch) |
Time: At day 60 and beyond, pathogen levels were below the detection limit. Temperature: Pathogen levels decreased during storage at all three tested temperatures, but levels decreased slower at 4°C than at the higher temperatures (12 and 25°C) |
Populations of L. monocytogenes decrease during storage of post-lethality contaminated pepperoni (pH <4.8; aw <0.83) Acid-adapted or pepperoni-extract-adapted L. monocytogenes showed decreased resistance to low pH, water activity, and other antimicrobial components of the pepperoni, suggesting that challenge studies conducted in pepperoni with L. monocytogenes grown under optimal conditions underestimate the effects of antimicrobial hurdles compared to acid-adapted cells. |
| Cagri A, Ustunol Z, Ryser ET (2002) Inhibition of three pathogens on bologna and summer sausage using antimicrobial edible films. Journal of Food Science 67 (6):2317-2324. | FC/NSS | All beef bologna, fermented Thuringer summer sausage | Beef Beef and pork (summer sausage) |
Listeria monocytogenes E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella spp. |
Antimicrobials (p-aminobenzoic acid, sorbic acid incorporated in an edible film) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: storage for 21 days Temperature: storage at 4°C Concentration: · Bologna contained 2.4% salt and 0.25% sodium nitrite while summer sausage contained 2.1% salt and 0.25% sodium nitrite in the formulation. · Concentration of p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and/or sorbic acid (SA) in an edible whey protein isolate film placed between slices. pH: 6.0 (bologna); 4.6 (summer sausage) Contact Time: The film remained between slices throughout the storage time Spatial Configuration: 3 mm thick slices for both bologna and summer sausage Other: Aerobic storage |
Concentration: · 0.75 to 1% PABA · 0.75 to 1% SA · 0.5% PA plus 0.5% SA |
PABA and/or SA within an edible whey film decreased all three pathogens by at least 3 logs after 21 days of storage at 4°C at the concentrations tested |
| Calicioglu M, Faith NG, Buege DR, Luchansky JB (1997) Viability of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in fermented semidry low-temperature-cooked beef summer sausage. Journal of Food Protection 60 (10):1158-1162. | HT/SS | Fermented, semidry beef summer sausage | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Fermentation time: ~13 hrs · Heating hold time at 54°C: 0 to 60 min · Storage time at 4 or 25°C: 7 days Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 29 to 41°C (smokehouse temperature) · Heating temperature: internal chub temperature of 54°C, with dry bulb smokehouse temperature 49 to 66°C · Storage temperature: 4 or 25°C Concentration: 2.5% salt; 0.26% curing salt (6.25% sodium nitrite); 0.054% sodium erythorbate Humidity: fermentation at 80% RH, heating at 60% RH Water Activity: 0.94 to 0.95 after 7 days of storage at 4°C pH: raw batter was ~5.84; 4.6 or 5.0 following fermentation; 4.53 and 4.90 after 7 days of storage at 4°C Spatial Configuration: 64 mm diameter casings on sausages Other: batter mix was 11% fat; sausage were vacuum packaged prior to storage |
pH: pH 4.6 and 5.0 after fermentation Time: Holding time at 54°C Temperature 54°C internal temperature held after fermentation |
Fermentation at 41°C to pH 4.6 or 5.0 followed by heating to 54°C for 30 min reduced E coli O157:H7 by >5 logs. |
| Calicioglu M, Faith NG, Buege DR, Luchansky JB (2001) Validation of a manufacturing process for fermented, semidry Turkish soudjouk to control Escherichia coli O157:H7. Journal of Food Protection 64 (8):1156-1161. | NHT/SS HT/SS |
Fermented, semidry Turkish soudjouk (sausage) | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time was about 7 days · Cooking time (for those cooked to 54.4°C) ranged from 0 to 60 min · Storage time was up to 28 days Temperature: · 24°C for fermentation and drying for first 3 days at 90-95% RH, then 22°C for about 3 more days at 80-85% RH · Some sausages were heated to a target internal temperature of 54.4°C after drying · Storage temperatures tested were 4 and 21°C Concentration: All soudjouk contained 1.9% sodium chloride and 156 ppm sodium nitrite Humidity: 80-95% during drying; see above. Water Activity: 0.88 to 0.91 after storage at 4°C for 28 days pH: 4.48 to 5.44 after storage at 4°C for 28 days Spatial Configuration: ~250 g sausage sticks Other: · Airflow during drying was 1 to 1.5 m/s · Prior to storage, sticks were vacuum packaged · Some soudjouk used an added started culture |
Time: Storage time of at least 14 days at 21°C Temperature: Cooking temperature of 54.4°C following drying Other: Controlled fermentation (using starter culture) to bring pH ≤ 4.6 |
The study found three processes which provided a 5-log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 in soudjouk: 1. Controlled fermentation to pH≤4.6 and subsequent cooking to an internal temperature of 54.4°C 2. Controlled fermentation followed by storage at 21°C for at least 14 days 3. Natural fermentation to pH≤5.4, cooking to 54.4°C (internal temperature) and holding for 60 min followed by storage at 21°C for at least 14 days |
| Calicioglu M, Faith NG, Buege DR, Luchansky JB (2002a) Viability of Escherichia coli O157:H7 during manufacturing and storage of a fermented, semidry soudjouk-style sausage. Journal of Food Protection 65 (10):1541-1544. | NHT/SS HT/SS |
Fermented, semidry Turkish soudjouk (sausage) | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermenting time: 3 days · Drying time: 18 hrs · Conditioning time: ~3 days · Storage time: 0 or 21 days Temperature: · 22 or 38°C during fermentation · 9°C during drying · 38°C or 22°C during conditioning · 63°C (internal temperature) heat treatment for some sausages post-fermentation · 4, 15, and 25°C storage temperature after conditioning Humidity: · 50% RH during fermentation · 40% RH during drying · 70 or 50% RH during conditioning pH: 4.9 to 6.0 after natural or controlled fermentations, respectively Spatial Configuration: 3.65 diameter casings; 15 cm lengths |
Temperature: Conditioning temperature Storage temperature pH: pH following controlled fermentation |
When using a starter culture and no heat treatment, pathogen numbers were reduced 4.53 log after conditioning at 38°C/70% RH. Conditioning at a lower temperature (or not using a starter culture) resulted in a smaller reduction in pathogen numbers. Greater reductions in pathogen numbers were noted with ambient storage temperature (25°C) than with cooler temperatures. While cooking to an internal temperature of 63°C eliminated E. coli O157:H7, it also resulted in unacceptable product. |
| Calicioglu M, Sofos JN, Kendall PA (2003a) Fate of acid-adapted and non-adapted Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated post-drying on beef jerky treated with marinades before drying. Food Microbiology 20 (2):169-177. | HT/SS | Beef jerky | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, acetic acid, ethanol, acetic acid, Tween 20 in pre-drying marinade or dip) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Immersion times: 10 or 15 min · Marinating time: 24 hr · Drying: 10 hours · Storage: up to 60 days Temperature: · 4°C when marinating · 60°C during drying · 25°C during storage Concentration: · Traditional marinade (pH 4.3) · Modified marinade (pH 3.0) containing 1.2% sodium lactate, 9% acetic acid, and 68% soy sauce with 5% ethanol · 5% acetic acid dip (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade · 1% Tween 20 immersion (pH 6.6, 15 min) followed by 5% acetic acid immersion (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade Water Activity: · 0.564 to 0.691 before storage (unmarinated controls: 0.664 and 0.665) · 0.630 to 0.665 after storage (unmarinated controls: 0.577 to 0.638) pH: (See also “Concentration” above) Product pH values were as follows: · 4.50 to 5.67 before storage (unmarinated controls: 5.55 to 5.77) · 4.64 to 5.54 after 60 days storage (unmarinated controls were 5.48 to 5.70) Product Coverage: Marinades and dips covered surface of slices Spatial Configuration: 8.7 x 4 x 0.6 cm slices |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Marinade composition pH: Marinade pH Water activity: |
Marinades with antimicrobial ingredients resulted in faster elimination of E coli O157:H7 from jerky during storage at 25°C. Total elimination of the pathogen occurred at 60 days for the control (no marinade) and traditional marinades when acid-adapted cultures were used. For the other marinades, pathogen elimination occurred earlier (by 28 days). Non-acid adapted pathogen was never totally eliminated for the control (no marinade) and traditional marinade jerky, but was eliminated at 42 or 60 days for the other marinades. |
| Calicioglu M, Sofos JN, Kendall PA (2003b) Influence of marinades on survival during storage of acid-adapted and nonadapted Listeria monocytogenes inoculated post-drying on beef jerky. International Journal of Food Microbiology 86 (3):283-292. | HT/SS | Beef jerky | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, acetic acid, ethanol, acetic acid, Tween 20 in pre-drying marinade or dip) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Immersion times: 10 or 15 min · Marinating time: 24 hr · Drying: 10 hours · Storage: up to 60 days Temperature: · 4°C when marinating · 60°C during drying · 25°C during storage Concentration: · Traditional marinade (pH 4.3) · Modified marinade (pH 3.0) containing 1.2% sodium lactate, 9% acetic acid, and 68% soy sauce with 5% ethanol · 5% acetic acid dip (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade · 1% Tween 20 immersion (pH 6.6, 15 min) followed by 5% acetic acid immersion (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade Water Activity: · 0.589 to 0.666 before storage (unmarinated controls: 0.648 and 0.662) · 0.596 to 0.665 after storage (unmarinated controls: 0.652 to 0.665) pH: (See also “Concentration” above) Product pH values were as follows: · 4.72 to 5.88 before storage (unmarinated controls: 5.47 to 5.96) · 4.70 to 5.51 after 60 days storage (unmarinated controls were 5.61 to 5.67) Product Coverage: Marinades and dips covered surface of slices Spatial Configuration: 8.7 x 4 x 0.6 cm |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Water activity: |
Marinades with antimicrobial ingredients resulted in faster elimination of L. monocytogenes from jerky during storage at 25°C. Total elimination of the pathogen did not occur even at 60 days for the control (no marinade) and traditional marinades. For the other marinades, pathogen elimination occurred earlier (by 28 days). Non-acid adapted pathogen was never totally eliminated for the control (no marinade) and traditional marinade jerky, but was eliminated at 42 or 60 days for the other marinades. |
| Calicioglu M, Sofos JN, Kendall PA, Smith GC (2003c) Effects of acid adaptation and modified marinades on survival of postdrying Salmonella contamination on beef jerky during storage. Journal of Food Protection 66 (3):396-402. |
HT/SS | Beef jerky | Beef | Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, acetic acid, ethanol, acetic acid, Tween 20 in pre-drying marinade or dip) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Immersion times: 10 or 15 min · Marinating time: 24 hr · Drying time: 10 hours · Storage time: 60 days Temperature: · 4°C when marinating · 60°C when drying · 25°C during storage Concentration: · Traditional marinade (pH 4.3) · Modified marinade (pH 3.0) containing 1.2% sodium lactate, 9% acetic acid, and 68% soy sauce containing 5% ethanol · 5% acetic acid dip (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade · 1% Tween 20 dip (pH 6.6, 15 min) followed by 5% acetic acid immersion (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade Water Activity: · 0.560 to 0.688 prior to storage for all treatments (unmarinated controls were 0.651 to 0.662) pH: (See also “Concentration” above) Product pH values were as follows: · 4.41 to 5.28 prior to storage (unmarinated controls were 5.41 to 5.55) Product Coverage: Marinades and dips covered surface of slices Spatial Configuration: Slices were 8.7 x 4 x 0.6 cm |
Concentration: Antimicrobials pH: |
Dips and marinades where at least one step involved a pH ≤3.0 increased pathogen reduction during drying |
| Calicioglu M, Sofos JN, Samelis J, Kendall PA, Smith GC (2002b) Destruction of acid- and non-adapted Listeria monocytogenes during drying and storage of beef jerky. Food Microbiology 19 (6):545-559. | HT/SS | Beef jerky | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) pH control Water activity control Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, ethanol, Tween 20) in pre-drying marinade or dip |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Immersion times: 10 or 15 min · Marinating time: 24 hr · Drying: 10 hours · Storage: up to 60 days Temperature: · 4°C when marinating · 60°C during drying · 25°C during storage Concentration: · Traditional marinade (pH 4.3) · Modified marinade (pH 3.0) containing 1.2% sodium lactate, 9% acetic acid, and 68% soy sauce with 5% ethanol · 5% acetic acid dip (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade · 1% Tween 20 immersion (pH 6.6, 15 min) followed by 5% acetic acid immersion (pH 2.5, 10 min) followed by traditional marinade Water Activity: · 0.945 to 0.956 before drying (unmarinated controls: 0.964 to 0.965) · 0.481 to 0.684 after drying (unmarinated controls: 0.659 to 0.697) pH: (See also “Concentration” above) Product pH values were as follows: · 4.29 to 5.57 before drying (unmarinated controls: 5.43 to 5.69) · 4.65 to 5.62 after drying (unmarinated controls were 5.63 to 5.70) Product Coverage: Marinades and dips covered surface of slices Spatial Configuration: 8.7 x 4 x 0.6 cm |
Time: · Drying time of 4 to 10 hrs Temperature · Drying temperature of 60°C pH: pH of dips and marinades ≤3.0 increased pathogen reduction during drying |
|
| Calicioglu M, Sofos JN, Samelis J, Kendall PA, Smith GC (2002c) Inactivation of acid-adapted and nonadapted Escherichia coli O157:H7 during drying and storage of beef jerky treated with different marinades. Journal of Food Protection 65 (9):1394-1405. | HT/SS | Beef jerky | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Water activity control Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, acetic acid, ethanol, acetic acid, Tween 20 in pre-drying marinade or dip) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: 10 hours (drying time), storage time up to 60 days Temperature: 60°C during drying; 25°C during storage Concentration: Traditional marinade (pH 4.3) Modified marinade (pH 3.0) containing 1.2% sodium lactate, 9% acetic acid, and 5% ethanol 5% acetic acid (pH 2.5) dip, then traditional marinade 1% Tween 20 dip, then 5% acetic acid dip, then traditional marinade Water Activity: 0.576 to 0.728 pH: 4.34 to 4.74 Contact Time: Marinade dips: 10-15 min at ambient temperature Spatial Configuration: 8.7 by 4 by 0.6 cm (fresh meat) |
Time: · Dip times of 10 to 15 minutes · Marinating time of 24 hours · Drying time of 10 hours · Storage time after drying of 15 to 60 days Temperature: 60°C during drying Concentration: · In marinade: 1.2% sodium lactate, 9% acetic acid, and 5% ethanol · In dips: 5% acetic acid, 1% Tween 20 pH: 2.5 to 4.3 for marinades and dips |
All three of the modifications to the traditional marinade process, together with storage for 15 days at room temperature were equivalent to use of the traditional marinade with storage for 60 days and inactivated 6.5 logs of E coli O157:H7 in beef jerky |
| Carlier V, Augustin JC, Rozier J (1996a) Destruction of Listeria monocytogenes during a ham cooking process. Journal of Food Protection 59 (6):592-595. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Uncooked boned hams | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · 12 hours come-up time (from 6 to 58.8°C) · Cooking time at 58°C was 2 hours · Cooling time from 58.8°C to 9°C was 13 hours, then cooled for 48 hours at 7°C followed by storage at 9°C for up to 70 days Temperature: · Ham core temperature during cooking was 58.8°C · Storage temperature was 9°C Concentration: Brine contained 18 of nitrated salt and 0.3 g sodium ascorbate per kg of ham Spatial Configuration: Hams weighed about 6.5 kg and were approximately 240 x 200 x 150 mm in dimension Other: · Hams were inoculated with low levels (<10 CFU/g) or high (3.9 x 105 CFU/g) levels of L. monocytogenes · Hams were vacuum packaged prior to cooking |
Time: Cooking time Temperature: Ham core temperature during cooking |
The heat treatment in this study had an F-value of 32 min at 70°C for a z value of 10°C. No L. monocytogenes were found after cooking hams that were inoculated at low levels. However, highly contaminated hams did result in some L. monocytogenes being detected at the end of the 70-day storage period. The authors recommend hams be cooked to a minimum core temperature of 65°C, with an F70 value of at least 40 minutes to eliminate L. monocytogenes in highly contaminated hams and prevent its presence during storage. |
| Carlier V, Augustin JC, Rozier J (1996b) Heat resistance of Listeria monocytogenes (Phagovar 2389/2425/3274/2671/47/108/340): D- and z-values in ham. Journal of Food Protection 59 (6):588-591. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ham (raw ground brined ham) | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: up to 120 min of heating Temperature: Heating in water baths set to 55 and 60°C Concentration: 120 mg/kg potassium nitrate (ingoing) and 1.36% sodium chloride were present in the formulation Water Activity: 0.98 pH: 5.5 Other: · Product was 1.59% lipids · Water content of the fat-free product was 78.66% |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Heating temperature |
D-values for L. monocytogenes in ham at 55°C ranged from 13.4 min for resistant, untreated, and heat-shocked cultures were not significantly different and ranged from 13.4 to 19.2 min. At 60°C, the D-value for the resistant culture was 0.97 min, compared with 1.82 min for the untreated and 3.48 min for the heat shocked cultures. Z-values ranged from 4.38°C for the resistant culture to 5.05°C for the untreated and 6.74°C for the heat-shocked cultures. |
| Casco G, Johnson JL, Taylor TM, Gaytan CN, Brashears MM, Alvarado CZ (2015) Controlling Listeria monocytogenes Scott A on surfaces of fully cooked turkey deli product using organic acid-containing marinades as postlethality dips. International Journal of Food Science 2015:Article ID 157026. | FC/NSS | Fully cooked uncured smoked turkey deli loaves | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Organic acids as post-lethality dips) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Dip time: 1 minute Storage time: Up to 56 days storage Temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Formulation: 1.5% salt and 0.45% sodium tripolyphosphate · Dips: o 3.6% sodium lactate (SL) or potassium lactate (PL), o 0.75% sodium citrate (SC), o 3.6% SL + 0.25% sodium diacetate (SDA), or o 3.6% SL + 3.6% PL + 0.25% SDA Product Coverage: Sliced were dipped into 100 mL of the antimicrobial solutions Spatial Configuration: 2 mm slices Other: Aerobic storage conditions |
Concentration: · 3.6% sodium lactate · 3.6% potassium lactate · 3.6% sodium lactate plus 0.25% sodium diacetate · 3.6% sodium lactate plus 3.6% potassium lactate plus 0.25% sodium diacetate Moisture, salt, pH and aw were not reported. |
Combinations of SL/SDA and SL/PL/SDA used as a post-lethality dip inhibited growth of L. monocytogenes for 56 days of storage at 4°C. Dipping slices in 0.75% sodium citrate had no inhibition of L. monocytogenes compared to control (1-log increase at 7 days storage at 4°C) Dipping slices in 3.6% potassium lactate or sodium lactate extended lag until 14 days, whereas the lag phase was extended through 21 days with 3.6% sodium lactate + 0.25% sodium diacetate, with or without 3.6% potassium lactate. |
| Chacon PA, Muthukumarasamy P, Holley RA (2006) Elimination of Escherichia coli O157:H7 from fermented dry sausages at an organoleptically acceptable level of microencapsulated allyl isothiocyanate. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72 (5):3096-3102. | NHT/SS | Fermented dry sausages | Pork and beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Microencapsulated allyl isothiocyanate [AIT], a natural antimicrobial from cruciferous vegetables) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 3 days · Drying time: 25 to 42 days Temperature: · 26 to 14°C during fermentation · 13°C during drying Concentration: · 2.9% NaCl in formulation · 0.69% dextrose and corn syrup solids; · 500 to 1000 ppm AIT in formulation Humidity: · 88% to 75% RH during fermentation · 75% RH during drying Water Activity: 0.960 before fermentation; 0.885 at end of fermentation and drying pH: 5.57 before fermentation, <4.89 within 48 hours of fermentation Other: Intermittent smoking occurred during fermentation |
Time: Drying time Concentration: AIT at 750 and 1000 ppm eliminated >6 log CFU/g of E. coli after 16 and 21 days of processing. 500 ppm of AIT resulted in a 4.75 log reduction of the pathogen at day 28 and >6 log reduction at day 40. |
AIT did not affect the acidification of the sausages resulting from fermentation by Pediococcus pentosaceus. AIT at levels ≥750 ppm were unacceptable to many panelists in sensory evaluations. |
| Chen CH, Sebranek JG, Dickson JS, Mendonca AF (2005) Combining pediocin (ALTA™ 2341) with thermal pasteurization for control of Listeria monocytogenes on frankfurters. Animal Industry Report: AS 651, ASL R1992. | FC/NSS | Frankfurters | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Pediocin [ALTATM 2341]) Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Heat treatment for up to 120 sec · Storage: Up to 12 weeks Temperature: · Heat treatment at 71, 81, or 96°C · Storage temperature: 4, 10, or 25°C Concentration: Not stated; frankfurters were sprayed with pediocin Spatial Configuration: Frankfurters were packaged as 1, 5, or 10 links per package Other: Vacuum packaged prior to thermal treatment |
Time: · Heat treatment time · Storage time Temperature: · Heat treatment temperature · Storage temperature Concentration: Presence of pediocin Spatial Configuration: |
Heat pasteurization at 96°C for 120°C achieved virtually complete pathogen inactivation for single-link packages, but some growth was later observed in 5- and 10-link packages. Pediocin spray treatment reduced initial counts by up to 2 CFU on the frankfurters and suppressed growth of survivors for ~7 weeks at 4°C, 2 weeks at 10°C, and 1-2 days at 25°C |
| Chen CM, Sebranek JG, Dickson JS, Mendonca AF (2004a) Combining pediocin (ALTA 2341) with postpackaging thermal pasteurization for control of Listeria monocytogenes on frankfurters. Journal of Food Protection 67 (9):1855-1865. | FC/NSS | Frankfurters | Beef and pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Pediocin [ALTATM 2341]) Temperature control (Post-packaging thermal pasteurization) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Pasteurization time: 30 to 120 sec · Storage ≤ 12 weeks Temperature: · Pasteurization temperature of 71, 81, or 96°C · Storage temperature of 4, 10, or 25°C Concentration: 3000 AU (arbitrary units) or 6000 AU ALTA 2341 per link; formulation also contained sodium nitrite (0.0154%) and sodium chloride Contact Time: 14 to 18 hr at 2 to 4 °C (following pediocin spray and inoculation) prior to thermal pasteurization Product Coverage: Product was sprayed in vacuum bags prior to inoculation and vacuum sealing Spatial Configuration: 24 mm casings, 12 to 14 cm in length, packaged 1-10 links/bag Other: Frankfurters contained 28.25% crude fat, 57.66% moisture, and 13.44% protein |
For lethality: Concentration: 3000 or 6000 AU pediocin Time: Pasteurization time of at least 60 sec Temperature: Pasteurization temperature of at least 81°C Spatial Configuration: 1-link packages achieved better pathogen reductions following pasteurization than did 5- or 10-link packages For prevention of pathogen growth during storage: Time: · Up to 12 weeks at 4 or 10°C · Up to 12 days at 25°C Temperature: · See above |
81°C pasteurization for at least 60 sec in combination with pediocin was necessary to reduce initial inoculation by at least 50% |
| Chen CM, Sebranek JG, Dickson JS, Mendonca AF (2004b) Use of pediocin (ALTA-(TM) 2341) for control of Listeria monocytogenes on frankfurters. Journal of Muscle Foods 15 (1):35-56. | FC/NSS | Frankfurters | Beef and pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Pediocin [ALTATM 2341]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 12 weeks of storage Temperature: 4, 10, or 25°C storage Concentration: 3000 AU (arbitrary units) or 6000 AU ALTA 2341 per link; formulation also contained sodium nitrite (0.0154%) and sodium chloride pH: 6.05 to 6.08 following addition of ALTA 2341 Contact Time: Throughout storage Product Coverage: Product was sprayed in vacuum bags, 1-10 links/bag, prior to inoculation and vacuum sealing Spatial Configuration: 24 mm casings, 12 to 14 cm in length Other: · Vacuum packaged · Finished frankfurters contained 28.25% crude fat, 53.66% moisture, and 13.44% protein |
Concentration: Both 3000 and 6000 AU of ALTA 2341 delayed growth for at least 7 weeks at 4°C and about 2 weeks at 10°C but had caused a slight growth delay at 25°C. No significant concentration effect was noted (other than the presence or absence of ALTA 2341) Temperature: ALTA 2341 only delayed growth at temperatures of 4 or 10°C Without ALTA 2341, Lm could grow at any of the temperatures tested, but refrigeration delayed growth. |
Products with ALTA 2341 were darker in color but other quality characteristics were not judged to be significant by consumers. Because the units of ALTA 2341 were given in arbitrary units, it may be difficult to use these data alone in validation. |
| Chibeu A, Agius L, Gao A, Sabour PM, Kropinski AM, Balamurugan S (2013) Efficacy of bacteriophage LISTEX (TM) P100 combined with chemical antimicrobials in reducing Listeria monocytogenes in cooked turkey and roast beef. International Journal of Food Microbiology 167 (2):208-214. | FC/NSS | Cooked turkey and roast beef | Beef Poultry |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Bacteriophage [Listex P100], sodium diacetate [SD], or potassium lactate [PL]) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Up to 28 days storage Temperature: 4 and 10°C storage temperature Concentration: · 107 PFU/cm2 bacteriophage · Roast beef contained no antimicrobials, or 0.2% SD with or without 2.8% PL · Turkey contained no antimicrobials or 2.8% PL Contact Time: 15 min after phage treatment, samples were vacuum sealed Product Coverage: Surface treatment Spatial Configuration: RTE meat samples were 10 cm2 top-surface area and 5 mm thick core samples excised from RTE meat slices Other: Vacuum packaging in 8 x 6 inch commercial carrier bags (oxygen transmission rate of 40 to 50 cc per m2 per 24 hrs |
Concentration: · Bacteriophage treatment (107 PFU/cm bacteriophage) alone reduced populations of L. monocytogenes by 1.7-2.0 log, but surviving L. monocytogenes grew · Bacteriophage plus 2.8% PL in turkey inhibited growth: populations were less than inoculum level through 21 day storage at 4°C · 2.8% PL in turkey delayed growth for 3 and 7 days at 10 and 4°C, respectively. · 0.2% SD plus 2.8% PL in beef inhibited growth on beef for 14 and 28 days at 10 and 4°C, respectively Temperature: Bacteriophage, alone or with chemical antimicrobials, was more effective at 4°C than at 10°C. |
· SD and PL were more effective than bacteriophage in preventing L. monocytogenes growth · Combination of 2.8% PL plus 0.2% SD delayed inhibited growth of L. monocytogenes in beef for 28 days at 4°C · An additive effect between the phage and the chemical antimicrobials was observed during 4°C storage |
| Chikthimmah V, Knabel SJ (2001) Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes in and on vacuum packaged Lebanon bologna stored at 3.6 and 13.0 degrees C. Journal of Food Protection 64 (7):958-963. | HT/SS | Lebanon bologna | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes |
Temperature control (Refrigeration) pH control |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Up to 4 months storage Temperature: 3.6 and 13.0 °C storage temperature pH: not measured, but the report states it should be between 4.4 and 4.6 Other: Vacuum packaging was used |
Time: Temperature: pH: Following 10 weeks of storage at either temperature, all three pathogens were at undetectable levels. E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes numbers were reduced faster at the higher temperature (13.0°C) than at the lower temperature (3.6°C). Storage temperature did not affect the rate of Salmonella destruction. |
Whether the pathogen was inoculated pre- or post-fermentation, there was not a significant effect on survival during storage. |
| Choi SH, Chin KB (2003) Evaluation of sodium lactate as a replacement for conventional chemical preservatives in comminuted sausages inoculated with Listeria monocytogenes. Meat Science 65 (1):531-537. | FC/NSS | Pork frankfurters | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate [SL], potassium sorbate [PS], or sodium benzoate [SB]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage up to 8 weeks Temperature: 4°C during storage Concentration: · 3.3% sodium lactate · 0.05 or 0.1% potassium sorbate · 0.05 or 0.1% of sodium benzoate · All sausages also contained 0.234% salt, 0.05% erythorbate, and 0.016% sodium nitrite Water Activity: 0.936 to 0.941 pH: 6.10 to 6.15 Product Coverage: Incorporated within sausages Other: · Fat content 15.4 to 16.9% · Vacuum packaged in Cryovac coextruded film at 20 mm Hg |
Concentration: 0.05 and 0.1% sodium benzoate, 0.1% potassium sorbate, and 3.3% sodium lactate prevented growth for 8 weeks at 4°C, whereas 0.05% potassium sorbate was less effective |
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| Christiansen LN, Tompkin RB, Shaparis AB, Johnston RW, Kautter DA (1975) Effect of sodium nitrite and nitrate on Clostridium botulinum growth and toxin production in a summer style sausage. Journal of Food Science 40 (3):488-490. | HT/SS | Beef summer sausage | Beef | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite) pH control (Fermentation) |
Prevention of toxin production Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Up to 112 days storage Temperature: 27°C storage temperature Concentration: Sausages were formulated with 0 to 150 µg sodium nitrite per g of meat and 0 to 2% dextrose. All formulations contained 2.5% NaCl pH: · Average pH before processing was 5.58 to 5.63 · pH dropped to 4.22 after 16 weeks of storage at 27°C with dextrose but did not decrease w/o dextrose |
Concentration: Addition of ≥50 µg sodium nitrite/g meat to samples that contained dextrose prevented C. botulinum growth and toxin formation throughout 112 days of storage at 27°C pH: A lower pH alone (resulting from dextrose fermentation) decreased growth and toxin production but did not completely prevent them. |
Another part of the experiment tested combinations of nitrite (0 to 300 µg/g meat) with nitrate (0 to 1500 µg/g meat) with dextrose fermentation. The final pH of these samples dropped to 4.6 to 4.9 during fermentation under all conditions, and none were toxigenic. |
| Christiansen LN, Tompkin RB, Shaparis AB, Kueper TV, Johnston RW, Kautter DA, Kolari OJ (1974) Effect of sodium nitrite on toxin production by Clostridium botulinum in bacon. Applied Microbiology 27 (4):733-737. | NFC/NSS | Bacon | Pork | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite) |
Prevention of toxin production | Time: · Smoking occurred over an 8.5 hour period after inoculation · Storage time: up to 84 days Temperature: · Bacon was smoked and processed to an internal temperature of 53°C · Storage temperature of 7 or 27°C Concentration: 0 to 340 µg ingoing sodium nitrite per g meat; NaCl in finished bacon was 1.3 to 1.5% Water Activity: 0.955 to 0.960 for finished bacon Other:; moisture of finished bacon was 23.0 to 32.9%, protein concentration was 7.7 to 10.1%; fat content was 52.7 to 65.1% Additional details regarding the bacon processing procedures and pickle formulation are found in the reference. |
Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Nitrite concentration |
Higher levels of nitrite decreased rate of toxin formation and the number of samples that contained toxin. All samples stored for up to 84 days at 7°C were nontoxic. At 27°C, increasing nitrite levels resulted in longer storage times before toxin was formed and also fewer numbers of toxin samples. At low inoculum levels introduced via pickle, no toxin was found in samples formulated with 170 or 340 mg/g nitrite throughout the storage period. At high inoculum levels introduced via pickle, toxin was found at all nitrite levels but with lower frequency at higher nitrite levels. Nitrite levels decreased during processing and storage, and they decreased faster at 27°C than at 7°C. Levels of C. botulinum in bacon (inoculated via pickle) were approximately 4-fold lower after smoking; some of this decrease may have resulted from drainage of the pickle. |
| Chung HJ, Yousef AE (2010) Synergistic effect of high pressure processing and Lactobacillus casei antimicrobial activity against pressure resistant Listeria monocytogenes. New Biotechnology 27 (4):403-408. | TP/CS | Vienna sausages | Beef, pork and chicken mixture | Listeria monocytogenes | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: · HPP processing time: 1 minute Spatial Configuration: ~16 g pieces of sausage Pressure: 500 MPa |
Time: Pressure: 1 minute at 500 MPa reduced L. monocytogenes levels by >2 log10 |
The report also discusses the use of a cell extract of Lactobacillus casei to enhance the HPP effect, but this intervention with a cell extract from a laboratory strain was considered impractical for most meat processors. |
| Cui H, Gabriel AA, Nakano H (2010) Antimicrobial efficacies of plant extracts and sodium nitrite against Clostridium botulinum. Food Control 21 (7):1030-1036. | TP/CS | Modified cooked meat medium (pH 6.0, 2% NaCl) | Beef | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Alcohol-soluble and aqueous fractions of fresh and dehydrated herbs and spices, including nutmeg, sage, clove, and others, in combination with 10 mM sodium nitrite) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Up to 7 days of incubation Temperature: 25°C Concentration: 0.02% ethanol extract of sage, 0.05% ethanol extract of nutmeg, and 0.05% aqueous clove extract Other: Anaerobic incubation |
Concentration: Combining 10 mM sodium nitrite with certain plant extracts (0.02% ethanol extract of sage, 0.05% ethanol extract of nutmeg, and 0.05% aqueous clove extract) could prevent growth and in some cases inactivate (by up to 4 log10 CFU/mL for nutmeg) C. botulinum. |
Synergistic effects need to be validated in meats stored at refrigeration temperatures and with standard nitrite levels |
| Daminelli P, Dalzini E, Cosciani-Cunico E, Finazzi G, D'Amico S, Losio MN (2014) Prediction of the maximal growth rate of Listeria monocytogenes in sliced mortadella by the square root type model. Ital J Food Sci 26 (3):261-267. | FC/NSS | Sliced mortadella | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Refrigeration during storage) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 60 days of storage Temperature: · Formulation was cooked to a core temperature of at least 72°C · Storage temperature: 8°C Water Activity: 0.968 to 0.970 at beginning of storage; 0.969 to 0.972 after 60 days of storage pH: 6.18 to 6.22 at beginning of shelf-life; 6.01 to 6.15 after 60 days of storage Other: · Vacuum package · Fat content: 30% · Inoculation: 1.5 to 2 log CFU/g |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature |
Increasing storage temperature from 2 to 12°C increases growth rate and reduces doubling time. Storing mortadella at 8°C (mild temp. abuse) allows growth. A modeling using a square root -type equation was able to model storage temperature and predict growth of Listeria This paper 1) presents a way of predicting growth of Listeria monocytogenes using a square root model, and 2) indicates that storage temperature is in important variable. If abuse temperatures are expected, other interventions may be necessary. Using predictive modeling, storage at lower temperatures will reduce the doubling time (to 99 hours when stored at 2°C) |
| Danler RJ, Boyle EAE, Kastner CL, Thippareddi H, Fung DYC, Phebus RK (2003) Effects of chilling rate on outgrowth of Clostridium perfringens spores in vacuum-packaged cooked beef and pork. Journal of Food Protection 66 (3):501-503. | FC/NSS | Vacuum-packaged cooked beef chunks (from chuck or shoulder) and pork chunks (from shoulder, picnic, or cushion boneless) |
Beef Pork |
Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Heating time: 10 min · Chilling time: 7 hours total, including 2 hours between 54.4 to 26.6°C and 5 hours between 26.6 and 4.4°C Temperature: Cooling between 54.4 and 4.4°C pH: Cooked beef: 5.9, cooked pork: 6.3 Spatial Configuration:454 g of meat chunks (average size 5.1 cm3) in separate cook-in bags (3 mL nylon/polyurethane) Other: · Meat was vacuum packed prior to heating and chilling. · Compositional analysis: o Beef: 5.91% fat, 72.51% moisture, and 21.68% protein o Pork: 5.96% fat, 72.69% moisture, and 20.56% protein |
Time: See below Temperature: See below Less than 1 log of C. perfringens growth per gram was observed when chilling of beef or pork (after 10 min of heating at an internal temperature of 75°C) was performed as follows: · 54.4 to 26.6°C in 2 hours · 26.6 to 4.4°C in 5 hours |
The level of C. perfringens growth (≤1 log CFU/g) that occurred during chilling was low enough to meet USDA stabilization guidelines. |
| de Alba M, Bravo D, Medina M (2013) Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in dry-cured ham by high-pressure treatments combined with biopreservatives. Food Control 31 (2):508-513. | NFC/NSS | Dry-cured ham (sliced) | Pork | E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Nisin or pediocin) High-pressure processing |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · 10 min HPP holding time · Up to 60 days storage Temperature: · 12°C HPP temperature · 8°C storage temperature Concentration: 100 IU/g nisin; 0.6% pediocin Water Activity: 0.884 to 0.904 pH: 5.81 to 5.94 Product Coverage: Antimicrobial solutions were added to the surface of the dry-cured ham slices Pressure: 400 or 500 MPa Other: Slices were vacuum packaged for HPP processing |
Concentration: Nisin presence at 100 IU/g Pressure: High pressure alone at either 400 or 500 MPa showed some inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 on dry-cured ham. |
The use of nisin or pediocin alone did not affect E. coli O157:H7 levels. A synergistic effect (about 1 log additional reduction) occurred when nisin (but not pediocin) was used with high pressure treatment against E. coli O157:H7. The synergistic effect of nisin with 500 MPa pressure was maintained throughout the 60 day storage period. |
| de Alba M, Bravo D, Medina M (2015) Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enteritidis in dry-cured ham by combined treatments of high pressure and the lactoperoxidase system or lactoferrin. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 31:54-59. | NFC/NSS | Dry-cured ham (sliced) | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. |
Antimicrobials (Lactoperoxidase system [LP] or lactoferrin [LF]) High-pressure processing |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · 10 min HPP holding time · 60 days storage Temperature: · 12°C temperature during HPP · 8°C storage temperature Concentration: · Bovine LP system: see paper for details · Bovine LF: 1 mg/g Water Activity: 0.865 to 0.878 pH: 5.69 to 5.93 Spatial Configuration: 20 g slices to which antimicrobials were applied Pressure: 450 MPa Other: Ham slices were stored individually in vacuum-packaged double bags of BB325 (oxygen permeability 25cm3/m2) |
Concentration: Pressure: |
Lactoperoxidase or lactoferrin alone did not affect levels of either pathogen. HPP treatment alone resulted in an immediate 0.58 log reduction of L. monocytogenes levels and 2.22 log reduction of Salmonella levels. No synergistic effect was observed when LP or LF were used together with HPP for L. monocytogenes reduction or prevention of growth during storage; however, a synergistic effect between LP or LF with HPP was noted for Salmonella. |
| Devlieghere F, Geeraerd AH, Versyck KJ, Vandewaetere B, Van Impe J, Debevere J (2001) Growth of Listeria monocytogenes in modified atmosphere packed cooked meat products: a predictive model. Food Microbiology 18 (1):53-66. | FC/NSS | Cooked ham, white sausages, luncheon meat, chicken white, and pate packaged under modified CO2 atmospheres | Pork Chicken |
Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Refrigeration) Antimicrobial (Sodium lactate in formulation) Water activity control Dissolved CO2 in water phase of cooked meat |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 60 days storage Temperature: 4 to 47°C Concentration: · Sodium lactate content in formulation: 0.455 to 2.676 % w/w · NaNO2 content: <10 to 58 mg/kg Water Activity: 0.961 to 0.977 pH: 6.16 to 6.42 Other: · Fat content of meat products ranged from 1.8 to 31.4% w/w · Gas/product water phase volume ratio: 4/1 · Dissolved CO2 in water phase of cooked meat product: 590 mg/kg to 903 mg/kg |
Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Sodium lactate concentration Water Activity Other: Dissolved CO2 in the aqueous phase |
This is an important paper since it shows some inhibition to Listeria due to the amount of dissolved CO2 from packaging when using MAP packaging. Addition of sodium lactate and CO2 supplied extra hurdles to growth of Listeria monocytogenes. Results indicated that 1) modeling in broth can provide similar results to those obtained in actual meat products. Authors concluded the use of the response surface model was better than the use of the second model tested (Ratkowsky model) since it did not overestimate the lag phase predictions. |
| Duffy LL, Vanderlinde PB, Grau FH (1994) Growth of Listeria monocytogenes on vacuum-packed cooked meats: Effects of pH, Aw, nitrite and ascorbate. International Journal of Food Microbiology 23 (3-4):377-390. | FC/NSS | Sliced, vacuum-packed cooked meat | Beef Pork Chicken Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Nitrite, sodium ascorbate, sodium polyphosphate) Water activity control pH control |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 5 weeks storage Temperature: 0 or 5°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 0 to 4.17% · Sodium tripolyphosphate: 0 or 0.3% · Sodium ascorbate: 0 or 0.042% · Sodium nitrite: 0 to 315 mg/kg Water Activity: 0.960 to 0.993 pH: 5.9 to 6.9 Other: Vacuum packaged |
Concentration Water activity pH |
Nitrite (315 mg/kg in formulation) significantly reduced the growth and increased the lag time for L. monocytogenes growth at both temperatures, and this lag was increased when ascorbate was present. The concentration of nitrite needed to prevent pathogen growth was dependent upon the presence of ascorbate and upon pH. Incorporation of sodium tripolyphosphate at 0.3% raised the pH of the cooked meat and accelerated the bacterial growth rate. Type of meat did not affect the ability of pH or water activity to influence growth. Ascorbate, in the absence of nitrite, did not affect growth. The study also developed predictive models that can be used to assess the effects of various combinations of temperature, pH, water activity, nitrite, and ascorbate. |
| Dussault D, Vu KD, Lacroix M (2016) Development of a model describing the inhibitory effect of selected preservatives on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in a meat model system. Food Microbiology 53:115-121. | FC/NSS | Ham deli meat | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite, sodium chloride, sodium acetate, sodium lactate syrup, calcium propionate, and a blend of nisin and hop alpha acids) pH control |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: up to 90 days storage Temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Basic formulation included sodium erythorbate (750 ppm) and sodium tripolyphosphate (0.43%) · NaCl: 1.15 to 2.49% · Sodium nitrite: 65 to 200 ppm · Sodium acetate: 0.25 to 0.74% · Sodium lactate syrup: 0 to 3.06% · Calcium propionate: 0.07 to 0.14% · Nisin plus hop alpha acid mix: 0 to 20 ppm pH: 5.53 to 6.67 |
Concentration: Sodium chloride, sodium nitrite, sodium acetate, potassium lactate, or calcium propionate concentrations in meat formulation pH: pH of final meat product |
Increasing concentration of sodium chloride, sodium nitrite, sodium acetate, potassium lactate and calcium propionate in meat reduced bacterial growth rate while increasing pH in meat increased the growth rate of L. monocytogenes. A predictive model was developed that accounted for the interactions between the various antimicrobials and pH on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in a ham deli meat product. |
| Ellajosyula KR, Doores S, Mills EW, Wilson RA, Anantheswaran RC, Knabel SJ (1998) Destruction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella typhimurium in Lebanon bologna by interaction of fermentation pH, heating temperature, and time. Journal of Food Protection 61 (2):152-157. | NFC/NSS | Lebanon bologna (fermented sausage) | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Salmonella spp. |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 12 hours · 2nd fermentation time: until pH of either 5.2 or 4.7 was reached · Heating time: 3 to 20 hours · Heating come-up times: 0.5 h for 43.3°C, 5.5 h for 46.1°C, and 10.5 h for 48.9°C Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 26.7°C · 2nd fermentation temperature: · Heating temperature: 43.3 to 48.9°C Concentration: Formulation contained 3.5% salt, 12 ppm potassium nitrate, and 200 ppm sodium nitrite as well as a commercial starter culture containing Pediococcus acidilactici, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Micrococcus spp. pH: At end of 2nd fermentation: 4.7 to 5.2 |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Final heating temperature pH: pH following fermentation |
A combination of fermenting to either pH 5.2 or 4.7, followed by heating at 110°F (43.3°C) for 20 h, 115°F (46.1 °C) for 10 h, or 120°F (48.9°C) for 3 h reduced populations of both pathogens by >7 log units. Fermentation alone to either 5.2 or 4.7 without heat treatment resulted in a <2 log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella. S. Typhimurium was less or equally resistant to E. coli O157:H7 to various treatments in this study. Heating alone with the initial fermentation resulted in a <3 log reduction of E. coli O157:H7. A predictive model was developed using fermentation pH, final heating temperature, and time for heating as variables to predict reductions in E. coli O157:H7. |
| Everis L, Betts G (2013) Evaluation of Listeria challenge testing protocols: A practical study using cooked sliced ham. Food Control 29 (1):61-65. | FC/NSS | Cooked sliced ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Refrigeration) | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 14 to 21 days of storage Temperature: 8 to 12°C Concentration: NaCl from 1.8% to 2.1% Water Activity: 0.997 to 0.998 pH: 6.05 to 6.14 Other: Packaged in a 70% N2/30% CO2 atmosphere |
Time: Temperature: Storage of ham for 5 to 7 days at 8°C resulted in about a 2 log increase in L. monocytogenes growth. |
This study compares two different Listeria challenge protocols, and in doing so also provides some information on the growth of this information under several different storage conditions. Cold-adapted inoculum did not have a significant effect on growth on ham stored at 8°C compared to cells grown overnight at optimal temperature. |
| Faith NG, Parniere N, Larson T, Lorang TD, Luchansky JB (1997) Viability of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in pepperoni during the manufacture of sticks and the subsequent storage of slices at 21, 4 and -20 degrees C under air, vacuum and CO2. International Journal of Food Microbiology 37 (1):47-54. | NHT/SS | Pepperoni sticks stored as slices | Pork and beef mixture | E. coli O157:H7 | Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage for up to 90°C Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 36°C · Drying temperature: 13°C · Storage temperature: · -20, 4, or 21°C Humidity: Fermented at 85% RH, then dried at 65°C Water Activity: 0.90 after drying pH: <4.8 after fermentation Spatial Configuration: Storage was performed on slices 55 mm diameter and ~1.9 g Other: · Fat content: 33.29% in batter; 46.23% after drying and slicing · Moisture to protein ratio: ≤1.6:1 · Storage conditions: air, vacuum, or CO2 |
Time: Time of storage Temperature: Temperature of storage |
Fermentation and drying alone reduced E. coli O157:H7 by 2 logs. During storage, temperature had more of an effect on pathogen reduction than did packaging conditions. Storage at 21°C for 14 days under either air or vacuum resulted in an additional 2-3.8 log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 (beyond the 2-log reduction from fermentation and drying). Storage at 21°C for 28 days under either air or vacuum resulted in an additional 5 log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 (beyond the 2-log reduction from fermentation and drying). Storage at 4 or -20°C under any conditions for up to 90 days could not reduce E. coli O157:H7 levels to below 3.6 log. Storage in air (but not under other temperatures or atmospheres) at 21°C for 28 days resulted in color changes to the pepperoni with evidence of yeast and mold growth. |
| Faith NG, Wierzba RK, Ihnot AM, Roering AM, Lorang TD, Kaspar CW, Luchansky JB (1998) Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in full-and reduced-fat pepperoni after manufacture of sticks, storage of slices at 4 degrees C or 21 degrees C under air and vacuum, and baking of slices on frozen pizza at 135, 191 and 246 degrees C. Journal of Food Protection 61 (4):383-389. | NHT/SS | Full and reduced-fat pepperoni | Pork and beef mixture | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment of pepperoni slices on pizza) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 14-16 hours · Drying time: 12 to 16 days · Storage time: 14 to 60 days · Baking time: 0 to 20 min Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 36°C · Drying temperature: 13°C · Storage temperature: 4 or 21°C · Pizza baking temperature: 135, 191, or 246°C Humidity: · Fermentation at 85% RH · Drying at 65% RH Water Activity: 0.87 to 0.89 pH: ≤4.8 after fermentation Spatial Configuration: 5.51 cm casings, 47 cm in length; slices weighed 1.9 g Other: · Pepperoni batter fat content was 15, 20 or 32% (wt/wt) ; moisture: protein ratio was ≤1.6:1 · Pepperoni slices were stored either under air or vacuum |
Time: · Storage time · Baking time Temperature: Storage temperature Fat content: |
Fermentation and drying resulted in 1.62 log reduction in pathogen numbers for the highest fat formulation. Less pathogen reduction was noted during drying for lower fat products. Fat content did not correlate with pathogen reduction during drying. Storage temperature rather than atmosphere (air vs. vacuum) had more impact on pathogen reduction during drying; higher reductions were observe at higher temperatures. 14 days storage at 21°C resulted in 4.53 to 6.24 log CFU/g reductions, vs. reductions of 1.1 to 2.16 log for storage at 4°C. When baking slices on pizza, longer baking times or higher temperatures resulted in greater pathogen reduction. |
| Farber JM, Daley E (1994) Fate of Listeria monocytogenes on modified-atmosphere packaged turkey roll slices. Journal of Food Protection 57 (12):1098-1100. | FC/NSS | Turkey roll slices | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Packaging (Modified atmosphere packaging) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 30 days Temperature: 4 and 10 °C Water Activity: 0.98 pH: 6.2 Other: Modified atmosphere packaging: · 30% CO2/70%N2 · 50% CO2/50%N2 · 70% CO2/30%N2 |
Other: Modified atmosphere packaging |
L. monocytogenes growth on turkey roll slices was inhibited under an atmosphere of 70% CO2/30% N2 at both temperatures tested. Although some L. monocytogenes growth did occur with the other modified atmospheres at either temperature, the growth was less than that observed in slices packaged in air. |
| Fernandez PS, Peck MW (1997) Predictive model describing the effect of prolonged heating at 70 to 80 degrees C and incubation at refrigeration temperatures on growth and toxigenesis by nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum. Journal of Food Protection 60 (9):1064-1071. | NFC/NSS | Medium containing ground beef | Beef | Clostridium botulinum (non-proteolytic) |
Temperature control (Extended and slow heat treatments) Storage/holding |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin production |
Time: · Heating time: up to 2545 min · Refrigerated storage time: up to 90 days Temperature: · Heat treatments of 70, 75, 80, 85, 90°C · Storage temperature: 5 to 25°C Concentration: 1% NaCl Water Activity: 0.99 pH: Initial pH of meat medium was 6.5 Other: · Fat content was 8.8% · Toxin types: B, E, F · Anaerobic environment |
Time: Heating time Storage time Temperature: Heating temperature Storage temperature |
Heat treatments that prevented toxin for 90 days storage at ≤12°C: 75° for over 1072 minutes, 80°C for over 230 minutes, 85°C for over 36 minutes, and 90°F for over 10 minutes. Growth after 22 days storage at 12°C was observed following heating to 70°C for 2545 minutes. Higher heating temperature and shorter storage times resulted in no growth. Authors generated a predictive model that described the incubation time required before the first sample showed growth at temperatures ranging from 70 to 80°C. The model should not be used in the presence of lysozyme. |
| Fernandez PS, Peck MW (1999) A predictive model that describes the effect of prolonged heating at 70 to 90 degrees C and subsequent incubation at refrigeration temperatures on growth from spores and toxigenesis by nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum in the presence of lysozyme. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65 (8):3449-3457. | Other | Anaerobic meat medium made of cooked ground beef | Beef | Clostridium botulinum (non-proteolytic) |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) Temperature control (Refrigeration) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during storage Prevention of toxin production |
Time: · Temperature come-up times: 8.2 to 15.8 min · Time at target temperature: 5.8 to 2537.5 min · Temperature cool-down time: 4.3 to 12.5 min · Storage time: up to 90 days Temperature: · Heat treatments: 70 to 90°C · Storage at 5 to 25°C Concentration: · 1% NaCl · 2400 U lysozyme/mL Water Activity: 0.99 pH: 6.5 Other: · Fat content was 8.8% · Toxin types: B, E, F · Anaerobic environment |
Time: · Heating time · Storage time Temperature: · Heating temperature · Storage temperature |
Heat treatments of 70°C for 2545 min, 75°C for 463 min, 80°C for 230 min, 85°C for 84 min, and 90° C for 33.5 min, in the presence of lysozyme, all prevented growth and toxin formation during subsequent storage at ≤8°C for 90 days. A model was developed to predict the effects of heat treatments in the range of 70 to 90°C with subsequent incubation at refrigeration temperatures on the growth of Clostridium botulinum in an anaerobic meat medium. The model can be used with food products that contain lysozyme. |
| Foong SCC, Gonzalez GL, Dickson JS (2004) Reduction and survival of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat meats after irradiation. Journal of Food Protection 67 (1):77-82. | FC/NSS | Ready-to-eat frankfurter, ham, roast beef, bologna, smoked turkey (with and without lactate) | Beef Pork Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | Irradiation | Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · 24 hours storage prior to irradiation · 12 weeks storage after irradiation Temperature: · 4°C storage prior to irradiation · 4 or 10°C after irradiation Equipment Settings: the accelerator used for irradiation was operated at a power level of 10 kilowatts (kW) with a beam energy of 10 million electron volts (MeV); product doses were 0 to 4kGy (see paper for measured doses) Other: Meats were vacuum packaged prior to irradiation |
For pathogen reduction: Other: Irradiation dose For prevention of pathogen growth during storage: Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Other: Irradiation dose |
L. monocytogenes levels dropped by 3-logs following irradiation at 1.5 kGy for all products when nonselective plating medium was used. A 5-log reduction of L. monocytogenes was obtained at doses of 2.5 kGy for all products when nonselective medium was used. D10 values for L. monocytogenes in frankfurters, bologna, ham, and roast beef ranged from 0.42 to 0.44 kGy. A dose of 4 kGy resulted in no surviving L. monocytogenes in any of the meat products. A dose of 2 kGy reduced L. monocytogenes levels. No additional growth occurred when stored at 4°C for up to 5 weeks; however, growth occurred with a much shorter lag when meat products were stored at 10°C |
| Gamble HR (2001) Trichinae: Pork Facts: Food Quality and Safety. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/trichinae/docs/fact_sheet.htm. Accessed 16 June 2016. | NHT/SS HT/SS NFC/NSS |
Products made with fresh pork that are not completely cooked | Pork | Trichinella spp. | Irradiation | Pathogen reduction | Other: Irradiation at 30 krad (0.3 kGy) of cesium-137, cobalt-60, or high energy x-rays at this level | Other (Irradiation): 30 krad (0.3 kGy) of cesium-137, cobalt-60, or high energy x-rays at this same level |
Note that these values conflict slightly with those in the FSIS Compliance Guideline for Prevention and Control of Trichinella and Other Parasitic Hazards in Pork and Products Containing Pork, which specify a slightly higher minimum irradiation dose of 40 krad (0.4 kGy). |
| Geornaras I, Belk KE, Scanga JA, Kendall PA, Smith GC, Sofos JN (2005) Postprocessing antimicrobial treatments to control Listeria monocytogenes in commercial vacuum-packaged bologna and ham stored at 10 degrees C. Journal of Food Protection 68 (5):991-998. | FC/NSS | Commercial bologna and ham slices | Pork and beef (bologna) Pork |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Post-processing application of acetic acid, lactic acid, potassium benzoate, or nisin) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Storage time: 48 days Temperature: 25°C during chemical solution application 10°C storage temperature Concentration: Post-processing chemicals included 2.5% acetic acid, 2.5% lactic acid, 5% potassium benzoate, or 0.5% Nisaplin (equivalent to 5000 IU/mL nisin), alone or in sequence Water Activity: 0.963 for bologna; 0.973 for ham; values increased to 0.966 to 9.974 for bologna and 0.980 to 0.986 for ham after treatment pH: Untreated bologna: 6.13; untreated ham: 6.38; organic acid treatments reduced the pH 1.31 to 2.12 units. Contact Time: 2 minutes immersion in post-processing chemicals Product Coverage: Products were completely immersed Spatial Configuration: Bologna slices: 3 mm thick; ham slices: 1 to 2 mm thick Other: Vacuum packaged in a 15 by 22 cm, 3 mil std barrier, Nylon/PE vacuum pouch |
Time: Storage time Concentration: Post-processing antimicrobials |
The formulation of the bologna and the ham contained salt, sodium nitrite, and sodium erythorbate at unspecified concentrations. Initial reductions in L. monocytogenes levels of up to 2.9 log CFU/cm2 were observed with some treatments (nisin followed by an organic acid) All post-processing treatments except nisin alone resulted in reductions in L. monocytogenes levels during storage. Nisin plus lactic acid reduced L. monocytogenes to undetectable levels at the end of the 48-day storage period. |
| Geornaras I, Skandamis PN, Belk KE, Scanga JA, Kendall PA, Smith GC, Sofos JN (2006a) Post-processing application of chemical solutions for control of Listeria monocytogenes, cultured under different conditions, on commercial smoked sausage formulated with and without potassium lactate-sodium diacetate. Food Microbiology 23 (8):762-771. | FC/NSS | Commercial cooked smoked sausage | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate and sodium diacetate in formulation; post-processing application of chemical solutions [acetic acid, lactic acid, potassium benzoate, or nisin]) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Storage time: 48 days Temperature: · 25°C during chemical solution application · 10°C storage temperature Concentration: · Some formulations contained 1.5% potassium lactate plus 0.05% sodium diacetate · Post-processing chemicals included 2.5% acetic acid, 2.5% lactic acid, 5% potassium benzoate, or 0.5% Nisaplin (equivalent to 5000 IU/mL nisin), alone or in sequence Water Activity: 0.958; little change after immersion pH: 6.02 to 6.14 initially; pH was reduced 0.49 to 0.89 following post-processing treatments; pH dropped further during storage for sample that were not formulated with antimicrobials Contact Time: 2 min in chemical solutions Product Coverage: produce was immersed in chemical solutions Spatial Configuration: 3.5 cm in diameter and in length Other: vacuum packaged prior to storage in 3 mil std. barrier nylon/PE pouch |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Use of antimicrobials in the formulation or in dips |
Acetic acid, lactic acid, or potassium benzoate dips alone were effective in reducing initial L. monocytogenes populations by 0.4 to 1.5 log CFU/cm2. Nisin dips were more effective (reductions of 2.1 to 3.3 log CFU/cm2). The combination of an antimicrobial in the formulation with a post-processing chemical application could in some cases completely inhibit pathogen growth during 48 days of storage at an abusive (10°C) temperature. |
| Geornaras I, Skandamis PN, Belk KE, Scanga JA, Kendall PA, Smith GC, Sofos JN (2006b) Postprocess control of Listeria monocytogenes on commercial frankfurters formulated with and without antimicrobials and stored at 10 degrees C. Journal of Food Protection 69 (1):53-61. | FC/NSS | Frankfurters formulated with salt, sodium nitrite, and sodium erythorbate | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate and sodium diacetate in formulation; post-processing application of chemical solutions [acetic acid, lactic acid, potassium benzoate, or nisin]) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Dipping time: 2 min · Storage time: 48 days Temperature: · 25°C during chemical solution application/dipping · 10°C storage temperature Concentration: · Some formulations contained 1.5% potassium lactate (PL) plus 0.05% sodium diacetate (SD) · Post-processing treatments included 2.5% acetic acid (AA), 2.5% lactic acid (LA), 5% potassium benzoate (PB), or 0.5% Nisaplin (equivalent to 5000 IU/mL nisin), alone or in sequence Water Activity: 0.948 to 0.963 initially; 0.954 to 0.970 after post-processing treatments pH: 6.23 to 6.26 initially; pH reductions of 0.29 to 0.85 occurred with post-processing treatments Contact Time: Dipping time was 2 min. Some antimicrobials were included in the formulation Product Coverage: Products were immersed during dips Spatial Configuration: 2.5 cm in diameter, 6 cm in length Other: Product was vacuum packaged prior to storage |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials in formulation and in dips |
PL and SD in formulation inhibited L. monocytogenes growth during storage. Initial L. monocytogenes populations dropped by 1.0 to 1.8 log CFU/cm2 following AA, LA, or PB dips. Treatments that included nisin reduced initial levels by 2.4 to 3.8 log CFU/ cm2. All post-processing treatments resulted in some inhibition of L. monocytogenes during the initial stages of storage however, in all cases where PL and SD were not included in the formulation, significant growth occurred by the end of storage. The dipping of products formulated with PL and SD in AA or LA alone (or in nisin followed by AA, LA, or PB) increased lag-phase durations and lowered the maximum specific growth rates of the pathogen. |
| Geornaras I, Toczko D, Sofos JN (2013) Effect of age of cook-in-bag delicatessen meats formulated with lactate-diacetate on the behavior of Listeria monocytogenes contamination introduced when opening the packages during storage. Journal of Food Protection 76 (7):1274-1278. | FC/NSS | Cook-in-bag cured ham and cured turkey breast delicatessen meats (RTE) | Pork Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate [PL] and sodium diacetate [SD]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Time of storage prior to opening of packages and slicing of meat (prior to inoculation): up to 180 days · Time of storage after opening of packages and slicing and inoculation: up to 13 weeks Temperature: · Temperature of storage prior to opening packaged and slicing of meat (prior to inoculation): 1.7°C · Temperature of storage after opening of packages and slicing and inoculation: 4°C Concentration: 2.07% PL and 0.148% SD in the ham product; 2.24% PL and 0.16% SD in the turkey product Spatial Configuration: 10.2 by 7.6 cm by 1 to 2 mm thick slices; 7 slices were inoculated and packaged together Other: Vacuum packaged |
Temperature: Temperature of storage after opening of packages (4°C) Concentration: PL and SD concentrations in ham and turkey |
The age of the product at inoculation (up to 180 days) did not impact growth of L. monocytogenes. No matter the age of the product prior to inoculation, the PL+SD levels used in this study were able to inhibit growth of L. monocytogenes to ≤0.9 log during 13 weeks storage at 4°C. |
| Ghabraie M, Khanh Dang V, Tnani S, Lacroix M (2016) Antibacterial effects of 16 formulations and irradiation against Clostridium sporogenes in a sausage model. Food Control 63:21-27. | Other | Fresh pork sausage | Pork | Clostridium sporogenes (as a surrogate for Clostridium botulinum) |
Antimicrobials (Micro-encapsulated mixtures of nisin, nitrite, mixed essential oils of Chinese cinnamon plus cinnamon bark and potassium lactate plus sodium acetate) Irradiation (Gamma) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: Up to 7 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: · Nisin: 12.5 or 25 ppm · Nitrite: 100 or 200 ppm · Mixed essential oils of Chinese cinnamon plus cinnamon bark: 0.025 or 0.05% · Potassium lactate plus sodium acetate: 1.55 or 3.1% |
Concentration: Antimicrobial mixes |
Irradiation reduced the ability of the antimicrobial formulations to inhibit C. sporogenes growth, possibly by causing vegetative cells to sporulate. Study did not include positive controls. Irradiation alone was not tested. Antimicrobial mixes that contained 200 ppm nitrite were in general more effective at reducing C. sporogenes levels than mixes that contained 100 ppm nitrite. Some synergism with other antimicrobials with nitrite was observed. However, the use of irradiation with the antimicrobial mixes generally suppressed the anti-Clostridal effects of the antimicrobials, especially at days 4 and 7. |
| Glass K, Preston D, Veesenmeyer J (2007a) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in turkey and pork-beef bologna by combinations of sorbate, benzoate, and propionate. Journal of Food Protection 70 (1):214-217. | FC/NSS | Uncured turkey Cured pork-beef bologna |
Pork and beef Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium sorbate [PS], sodium benzoate [SB], and sodium propionate [SP]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 13 weeks of storage Temperature: 4°C during storage Concentration: · 0.05% PS · 0.05% SB · 0.05% SP · Pork-beef bologna was formulated with 156 ppm sodium nitrite Water Activity: · Turkey: 0.961 to 0.963 · Pork-beef bologna: 0.956 pH: · Turkey: 6.13 to 6.23 · Pork-beef bologna: 6.07 to 6.14 Other: Moisture content: · Turkey bologna: 75.27 to 76.61% · Pork-beef bologna: 56.23 to 57.44 |
Time Temperature Concentration Moisture Content 0.1% combined antimicrobials completely prevented the growth of L. monocytogenes on cured pork-beef bologna and inhibited but did not prevent growth of L. monocytogenes on uncured turkey when stored for 13 weeks at 4°C. |
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| Glass KA, Doyle MP (1989a) Fate and thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes in beaker sausage and pepperoni. Journal of Food Protection 52 (4):226-231. | HT/SS | Pepper-oni | Pork and beef mixture | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Low temperature heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · 1 hour heat treatment before or after drying · 19 to 26 days for drying · 60 days storage at 4°C Temperature: · Heat treatment: 35.6 to 51.7°C · Drying conditions: 12.8°C dry bulb, 10°C wet bulb · 4° storage after processing Humidity: 70% RH during drying pH: 6.0 for pepperoni batter at start Other: Moisture protein ratio was ≤1.6:1 at the end of drying |
Time: Heat treatment time Temperature: Heat treatment temperature Reprocessing pepperoni by heating to an internal temperature of 51.7°C for 4 hours after drying (but not before drying) eliminates all L. monocytogenes. Heating to the same temperature for the same time before drying did not consistently eliminate the pathogen. |
|
| Glass KA, Doyle MP (1989b) Fate of Listeria monocytogenes in processed meat-products during refrigerated storage. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 55 (6):1565-1569. | FC/NSS | RTE processed meats, including: Ham Bologna Wieners Sliced chicken Sliced turkey Fermented semidried sausage Bratwurst Cooked roast beef |
Beef Pork Chicken Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | pH control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 12 weeks of storage Temperature: 4.4°C storage temperature Concentration: · 0.6 to 3.4% salt · 0 to 48 ppm NaNO2 (ingoing concentration) pH: 4.8 to 6.4, depending on the product, at study start Other: · Vacuum packaged in gas-impermeable Curlon bags · 47.6 to 74.8% moisture · 10.5 to 25.1% protein · 1.3 to 30.6% fat · 0.4 to 3.4% carbohydrate |
Temperature pH |
L. monocytogenes grew well on most processed meats near or above pH 6 and grew poorly or not at all on products near or below pH 5 when stored for up to 12 weeks at 4.4°C. No additional antimicrobials were added to the products tested in this study. |
| Glass KA, Granberg DA, Smith AL, McNamara AM, Hardin M, Mattias J, Ladwig K, Johnson EA (2002) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by sodium diacetate and sodium lactate on wieners and cooked bratwurst. Journal of Food Protection 65 (1):116-123. | FC/NSS | Wieners (Frankfurters) Cooked bratwurst (cured and uncured) |
Pork, turkey, and beef (wiener) Beef and pork (bratwurst) |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium diacetate and sodium lactate; sodium nitrite curing + smoking) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: 60 days (wieners); 84 days (bratwurst) Temperature: Storage temperature: 4.5°C (wieners); 3 and 7°C (bratwurst) Concentration: · Dips: ≤6% lactate and ≤3 diacetate dips on wieners · Formulations: Lactate levels of 1.32 to 3.4% and diacetate levels of 0.1 to 0.25% in wieners and bratwurst · Some bratwurst were cured (156 ppm sodium nitrite in formulation) pH: 5.9 to 6.4 for wieners; 6.0 to 6.1 for brats Other: Vacuum packaged |
Time: Temperature: Concentration: Combinations of diacetate and lactate in wiener and bratwurst formulations could inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes at ≤7°C. Curing and smoking increased the effectiveness of the antimicrobials. |
Antimicrobial dips were not a reliable way to control L. monocytogenes growth on wieners. Lactate and diacetate are listeriostatic, not listeriocidal so cannot control the organism on heavily contaminated products. |
| Glass KA, Loeffelholz JM, Ford JP, Doyle MP (1992) Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7 as affected by pH or sodium chloride and in fermented, dry sausage. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 58 (8):2513-2516. | NHT/SS | Fermented dry sausage | Pork and beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · Drying time: 18-21 days · Storage time: 8 weeks Temperature: · Drying temperature: 12.8°C · Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: Sausage batter formulation included 156 µg/g NaNO2 and 3.5% NaCl; some contained a starter culture Humidity: 70% RH during drying pH: 4.8 at end of fermentation Other: · Starting moisture : protein ratio was ≤1.9:1 with 22% fat · Sausages were vacuum packaged |
Time: Drying time Storage time pH: At end of fermentation |
≤1 log of reduction was observed during drying, and about 1 log of additional reduction occurred during 8 weeks storage at 4°C. Similar reductions in E. coli O157:H7 were observed after drying and storage of sausages that were fermented with a starter culture vs. those fermented by indigenous microflora when both were at pH 4.8 at the end of drying. |
| Glass KA, McDonnell LM, Rassel RC, Zierke KL (2007b) Controlling Listeria monocytogenes on sliced ham and turkey products using benzoate, propionate, and sorbate. Journal of Food Protection 70 (10):2306-2312. | FC/NSS | Sliced, cooked, uncured turkey breast and smoked cured ham | Pork Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Benzoate, propionate, and sorbate, used alone or in combination; sodium lactate-sodium diacetate combinations) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: up to 12 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature: 4, 7, or 10°C Concentration: In formulations: · Sodium lactate: 1.6 to 3.2% · Sodium diacetate: 0.1 to 0.2% · Benzoate: 0.05 to 0.1% · Propionate: 0.05 to 0.3% · Sorbate: 0.05 to 0.3% · See reference for details on basic formulations of turkey and ham. Water Activity: 0.972 for turkey; 0.967 for ham pH: 6.42 for turkey; 6.39 for ham Other: See reference for details regarding moisture content, sodium chloride content, etc. |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobial(s) in formulation |
0.1% benzoate, 0.2% propionate, 0.3% sorbate, or a combination of 1.6% lactate with 0.1% diacetate prevented the growth of L. monocytogenes on ham stored at 4°C for 12 weeks. When no nitrite was included in the formulation, 0.2% propionate used alone, a combination of 0.1% propionate with 0.1% sorbate, or a combination of 3.2% lactate with 0.2% diacetate was required to prevent listerial growth on the product stored at 4°C for 12 weeks. When stored at 7°C, select treatments delayed listerial growth for 4 weeks but supported significant growth at 8 weeks. All treatments supported more than a 1-log increase in listerial populations when stored at 10°C for 4 weeks. |
| Golden MC, McDonnell LM, Sheehan V, Sindelar JJ, Glass KA (2014) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in deli-style turkey breast formulated with cultured celery powder and/or cultured sugar-vinegar blend during storage at 4 degrees C. Journal of Food Protection 77 (10):1787-1793. | FC/NSS | Deli-style turkey breast | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite, potassium lactate-sodium diacetate blend, cultured celery powder, cultured sugar-vinegar blend) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: up to 12 weeks storage time Temperature: storage temperature of 4°C Concentration: · NaNO2: 0 to 120 mg/kg from either purified NaNO2 or cultured celery powder · 3.8% lactate-diacetate blend (LD) or 1% cultured sugar/vinegar blend (DF) Water Activity: 0.962 to 0.976 pH: 6.39 to 6.49 Product Coverage: antimicrobials were in formulation Spatial Configuration: 4 slices per package, approximately 100 g Other: · Vacuum packaged in 3-mil high barrier EVOH pouches · Moisture content was 71.71 to 74.44% · Salt concentration was 1.75 to 2.16% · Water-phase salt was 2.31 to 2.83 |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration and combination of antimicrobials in the formulation |
An average 2.4-log increase in L. monocytogenes was observed at 3 weeks in the control without antimicrobials, a 1.3-log increase at 4 weeks for both 80 mg/kg NO2 treatments, and a 1.5-log increase at 6 weeks for the 120 mg/kg NO2 treatments. In uncured turkey with 3.8% LD or 1% DF, growth was delayed until 6 weeks, whereas supplementation with LD or DF and 80 mg/kg NO2 from either source delayed listerial growth through 12 weeks. No significant difference in growth inhibition was found between NO2 sources when equivalent concentrations were added. |
| Graumann GH, Holley RA (2008) Inhibition of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ripening dry fermented sausage by ground yellow mustard. Journal of Food Protection 71 (3):486-493. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausage | Pork and beef mixture | E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Mustard powder) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · 3 hours smoking · 4 days of fermentation · 44 days drying Temperature: · 20 to 26°C during fermentation · 14°C during drying Concentration (in formulation, all are in wt/wt): · 2.91% sodium chloride · 0.31% pickle cure concentrate containing 6.25% sodium nitrite/nitrate and 0.05% sodium erythorbate) · 6% deheated and 2, 4, 6% nondeheated mustard (with active myrosinase) in sausage formulation Humidity: 74 to 88% during drying Water Activity: 0.893 to 0.897 after drying pH: 5.11 to 5.37 at end of drying Spatial Configuration: 55 mm diameter sausages weighing 500 g each Other: Starter cultures of Pediococcus pentosaceus and Staphylococcus carnosus |
Time: 4 days fermentation 44 days drying time Temperature: · 20 to 26°C during fermentation · 14°C during drying Concentration: · 2.91% sodium chloride · 0.31% pickle cure containing 6.25% sodium nitrite/nitrate and 0.05% sodium erythorbate) · 6% deheated and 2, 4, 6% nondeheated mustard in sausage formulation Humidity: 74 to 88% during drying Water Activity: 0.893 to 0.897 after drying pH: 5.11 to 5.37 at end of drying |
“Antimicrobial compounds generated in situ by myrosinase action in nondeheated mustard powder added at 2, 4, and 6% to sausage batter resulted in 3.4-, 4.4-, and 6.9-log reductions of E. coli O157:H7, respectively, after 30 days of ripening. With further drying, 5-log E. coli O157: H7 reductions in the 2 and 4% mustard powder treatments were achieved by 48 and 36 days, respectively.”. |
| Graumann GH, Holley RA (2009) Survival of E. coli O157:H7 during manufacture of dry-cured Westphalian ham surface-treated with allyl isothiocyanate or hot mustard powder. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 89 (4):617-624. | NHT/SS | Dry-cured boneless Westphalian ham | Pork | E. coli O157:H7 (non-pathogenic variants) | Antimicrobials (Microencapsulated allyl isothiocyanate or hot mustard powder Water activity control |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Water expulsion under weights: 21 days · Hanging time: 14 days · Fermenting time: 9.2 days · Cold smoking time: 10 hours · Storage time: until end testing at 80 days after inoculation (which occurred prior to curing) Temperature: · Water expulsion under weights: 4°C · Hanging temperature: 4°C · Fermentation temperature: ~12 to 32°C · Storage temperature: 14°C Concentration: · 200-400 µg/kg microencapsulated allyl isothiocyanate (AIT) or 60 g/kg mustard powder · Dry curing blend formulation: 41g/kg pickling salt, 6g/kg nitrite and nitrate, 4 g/kg carbohydrate and 3 g/kg spice mixture, applied by rubbing over ham surface at 54 g/kg Humidity: 75% RH during hanging time; 74% RH during storage Water Activity: 0.974 before ripening pH: 5.8 to 5.9 initial prior to storage Product Coverage: surface of hams Spatial Configuration: 4 to 4.5 kg hams Pressure: 500 g/cm3 during pressing |
Time: · Water expulsion under weights · Hanging · Fermenting · Cold smoking · Storage time Temperature: · Water expulsion under weights · Hanging · Fermenting · Cold smoking · Storage temperature Concentration: AIT or mustard powder |
The dry curing process alone reduced E. coli O157:H7 by >5 log CFU/g during the 80-day maturation period without any additional antimicrobials (AIT or hot mustard powder). The use of AIT or non-deheated mustard powder reduced E. coli O157:H7 by a similar amount in a shorter time period (45 days). |
| Grosulescu C, Juneja VK, Ravishankar S (2011) Effects and interactions of sodium lactate, sodium diacetate, and pediocin on the thermal inactivation of starved Listeria monocytogenes on bologna. Food Microbiology 28 (3):440-446. | FC/NSS | Bologna slices | Beef and pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, sodium diacetate, bologna formulation; pediocin as a dip) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Pediocin-dipping time: 5 min · Come-up time for heating (in water bath): 7 to 9 min Temperature: 56.3 to 60°C water bath Concentration: · All formulations contained 1.4% NaCl and 0.17% Prague powder (which contained 6.25% sodium nitrite and 93.75% NaCl) · Lactate (0 to 4.8%) · Diacetate (0 to 2.5%) · Pediocin (0 to 10,000 AU) Product Coverage: Sodium lactate and sodium diacetate were in the formulation; pediocin was used as a dip Spatial Configuration: Bologna slices weighed about 25 g Other: Bologna slices were individually vacuum packaged in 2-ply, 3-mil nylon bags( |
Temperature: Temperature of heat treatment Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobial |
The results of this study show that combinations of GRAS chemical preservatives and pediocin at lower-than-permitted concentrations in the formulation of bologna along with heat treatment at lower temperatures may provide a better inhibition against starved L. monocytogenes which can be commonly found in the environment. Sensory studies on bologna with antimicrobials merit further investigation Cell injury ranged from 9.1 to 76% under various conditions. At lower temperature, lactate and diacetate were more effective. At higher temperature, Listeria became more heat resistant and pediocin and diacetate lowered D values. An interesting paper that shows that thermal processing temperature may influence the ability of lactate and diacetate, and pediocin to influence the D value of starved Listeria cells. It is not known how significant these changes may be in actual products. |
| Gumus T, Demirci AS, Velioglu HM, Velioglu SD, Yilmaz I, Sagdic O (2008) Application of gamma irradiation for inactivation of three pathogenic bacteria inoculated into meatballs. Radiation Physics and Chemistry 77 (9):1093-1096. | Other | Seasoned veal meatballs (Tekirdag meatball) (uncooked) | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella spp. |
Irradiation (Gamma) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Irradiation time: 40 to 190 min Storage time: up to 7 days Temperature: Irradiation temperature: 20 to 25°C Storage temperature: 4°C Concentration: meatball formulation had 2% salt and other spices Spatial Configuration: 50 g meatballs Other: Gamma irradiation at 1 to 5 kGy |
Other: Gamma irradiation ≥3.2 kGy for E. coli O157:H7 and S. aureus ≥4.5 kGy for Salmonella |
E. coli O157:H7 and S. aureus levels decreased with increasing irradiation doses. Salmonella levels required irradiation at levels of 4.5 kGy doses for inactivation. |
| Gunvig A, Borggaard C, Hansen F, Hansen TB, Aabo S (2016) ConFerm - A tool to predict the reduction of pathogens during the production of fermented and matured sausages. Food Control 67:9-17. | NHT/SS | Fermented meat product made from beef and pork shoulder | Pork and beef | Salmonella spp. E. coli O157:H7, O111, O26LH Listeria monocytogenes |
Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite and NaCl) Water activity control pH control |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation: 48 hr. · Drying time: until ~15% weight loss was reached Temperature: · Fermentation temp: 24°C · Maturation temp: 16°C Concentration: · Sodium nitrite: 0, 100, 200 ppm · Salt: 3% Humidity: 95% RH during fermentation; 85 to 90% during drying pH: · Initial pH: 4.3 to 5.6 · pH at 48 hr.: 4.2 to 5.4 Spatial Configuration: sausages weighed about 600 g and were filled in 60 mm casings Other: · Water phase salt: 3.9% to 6.8% before fermentation and drying; 5.6% to 16.4% after fermentation and drying |
Concentration: NaCl and NaNO2 (added to mince) pH: pH at 48 hours and final pH Other: Total weight loss and water content of the final product |
Reduction in Salmonella, STEC, and L. monocytogenes was a function of pH, use of sodium nitrite, product weight loss, and water phase salt content. Study resulted in three linear regression models, one for reduction for Salmonella, one for STEC, and one for L. monocytogenes during fermentation and maturation of fermented meat products. See http://dmripredict.dk. |
| Gunvig A, Hansen F, Borggaard C (2013) A mathematical model for predicting growth/no-growth of psychrotrophic C. botulinum in meat products with five variables. Food Control 29 (2):309-317. | FC/NSS | Pasteurized, sliced meat products (chicken cold cuts and pork cold cuts) packaged in modified atmospheres | Pork Chicken |
Clostridium botulinum (non-proteolytic) |
Temperature control (Refrigeration) Antimicrobials (NaCl, sodium nitrite, sodium lactate) pH control |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: up to 8 weeks Temperature: 4 to 12°C Concentration: · Sodium nitrite: 0 to 150 ppm · Sodium chloride: 1.2 to 2.4% · Sodium lactate: 0 to 3% pH: 5.4 to 6.4 Spatial Configuration: Thick slices weighing ~100 g Other: · Modified atmosphere packages (30% CO2/70% N2) · % water phase salt: 1.6 to 4.7 · % water phase lactate: 0.3 to 4.5 · Water content |
Temperature: Storage temperature between 4 and 10°C Concentration: Added NaCl between 1.2 and 2.4% Added sodium nitrite between 0 and 150 ppm Added sodium lactate between 0 and 3% pH: pH between 5.4 and 6.4 Other: Water content in the final product between 53 and 78% |
The interventions alter the probability of the growth of C botulinum in pasteurized meat products. This may be quite useful if one desires a look at the consequences that might occur when considering non-proteolytic C. botulinum. It includes a static temperature factor. Five factors (temperature, nitrite concentration, pH, % water phase salt and % water phase lactate) influenced the growth of psychrotrophic C. botulinum. The model developed here uses an artificial neural network including a user interface to the Danish Meat Institute for quick access. The output is in the form of a multicolored graphic and ranges of predicted risk of growth. |
| Haneklaus AN, Harris KB, Cuervo MP, Ilhak OI, Lucia LM, Castillo A, Hardin MD, Osburn WN, Savell JW (2011) Evaluation of additional cooking procedures to achieve lethality microbiological performance standards for large, intact meat products. Journal of Food Protection 74 (10):1741-1745. | FC/NSS | Large cured bone-in hams (9-12 kg) and large uncured beef inside rounds (8-13 kg) | Beef Pork |
Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus aureus |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction Prevention of toxin production |
Time: 24,000 sec to 51,300 sec of cooking time Temperature: Final internal temperature: 48.9 to 71.1°C Concentration: Formulation of curing brine pumped into ham included 2% sodium chloride, 200 ppm sodium nitrite, 540 ppm sodium erythorbate, and 5000 ppm sodium tripolyphosphate Humidity: Batch oven relative humidity: 50% or 90% Spatial Configuration: Large bone-in hams (9 to 12 kg) and large uncured beef inside rounds (8 to 13 kg) |
Temperature Relative humidity |
All combinations of final internal temperature and relative humidity used in the study resulted in at least a 6.5 log reduction in Salmonella counts with no detectable S. aureus toxin production. All conditions tested therefore achieved the USDA FSIS lethality performance standard for fully cooked, ready-to-eat products. |
| Harrison JA, Harrison MA (1996) Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella typhimurium during preparation and storage of beef jerky. Journal of Food Protection 59 (12):1336-1338. | HT/SS | Whole beef jerky | Beef | Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes E. coli O157:H7 |
Temperature control (Heating in liquid) Water activity control Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Marinating time: overnight (or until a marinating internal product temperature of 71.1°C was reached) · Drying time: 10 hours · Storage time: 8 weeks Temperature: · Marinating temperature: 4°C or 71.1°C · Drying temperature: 60°C · Storage temperature: 25°C Concentration: See reference for marinade formulation Water Activity: 0.75 to 0.94 after drying Spatial Configuration: Prior to marinating and drying, beef strips were 15 x 1.5 x 1.5 cm in size |
Temperature: Drying temperature Time: Drying time: |
Marinating with heat at 71.1°C prior to drying resulted in significant immediate reductions in all three pathogens prior to drying. However, 10 hours of trying at 60°C was sufficient to reduce by all pathogens by >5 log units. See also: (USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, 2014a) 2014 Compliance Guide for Jerky |
| Heir E, Holck AL, Omer MK, Alvseike O, Mage I, Hoy M, Rode TM, Sidhu MS, Axelsson L (2013) Effects of post-processing treatments on sensory quality and Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli reductions in dry-fermented sausages. Meat Science 94 (1):47-54. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausages (salami and morr) | Pork and beef (salami) Pork and mutton and beef (morr) |
E. coli O157:H7, O103:H25 | Temperature control (Heat treatment, freezing, thawing) Antimicrobials (NaCl, nitrite) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Heat treatment: 24 hours to 6 days · Freezing and thawing for 17 hours and 7 hours, respectively · Storage time: 1 and 2 months · Freezing time Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 20 or 30°C · Heat treatment: 32 to 43°C · Freezing and thawing at -20°C and 20°C · Storage temperature: 4, 16, or 20°C Concentration: In formulation: · NaCl: 3.6 to 5% · NaNO2: 100 to 500 ppm · Glucose: 0.5 to 1.25% |
Time: Heat treatment time Storage time Freezing time Temperature: Heat treatment temperature Storage treatment temperature Freezing temperature Concentration: Salt/nitrite/glucose |
Heat treatments of 32°C for 6 days or 43°C for 24 hours reduced STEC levels by 1.8 to ≥3.8 log; with the higher temperature treatment being more effective. Storage temperatures that were longer and at higher temperatures resulted in greater STEC reductions. Higher reductions in STEC during storage were observed in formulations with higher levels of salt, nitrite, and glucose. Freeze-thaw treatment resulted in 0.7 to 2.6 log reductions depending on the formulation. Slightly higher reductions were obtained with 4 freeze-thaw cycles than with 1. |
| Hereu A, Bover-Cid S, Garriga M, Aymerich T (2012) High hydrostatic pressure and biopreservation of dry-cured ham to meet the Food Safety Objectives for Listeria monocytogenes. International Journal of Food Microbiology 154 (3):107-112. | NHT/SS | Sliced dry-cured ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Nisin) High-pressure processing |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · High pressure processing time: 5 min · HPP come-up time was 192 sec; release time was <6 sec · Storage time: up to 60 days Temperature: · Initial temperature at start of HPP: 15°C · Storage temperature: 8°C Concentration: · Nisin at 200 AU/cm2 applied directly or through active packaging using a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) film · Final hams had 5.08 to 6.87% NaCl; <5 mg/kg residual NaNO2 and 168.5 to 186 mg/kg NaNO3 Water Activity: 0.92 (with 14.25% fat) or 0.88 (with 33.26% fat) pH: 5.84 to 5.91 Product Coverage: Nisin was either applied directly to surface of ham slice or via a PVA film inserted within a folded slice Spatial Configuration: Slices weighed 25-27 g Pressure: 600 MPa |
Time: HPP processing time Concentration: Nisin concentration Pressure: HPP pressure |
Control hams (without nisin and HPP treatment) did not allow grow of L. monocytogenes but did permit its survival. Immediate inactivation with HPP processing ranged from 1.82 to 3.85 log; lower water activity ham had less inactivation Nisin application caused an immediate reduction in L. monocytogenes numbers, which continued during storage. Direct application of nisin was more effective than when applied through PVA films. Nisin’s presence increased HPP inactivation of L. monocytogenes. |
| Hereu A, Dalgaard P, Garriga M, Aymerich T, Bover-Cid S (2012b) Modeling the high pressure inactivation kinetics of Listeria monocytogenes on RTE cooked meat products. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 16:305-315. | FC/NSS | Sliced ham, mortadella | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Pressurization time: 0.1 to 900 seconds · Pressure come-up rate: 220 MPa/min · Pressure release time: <6 seconds Temperature: · Initial HPP fluid temperature: 15°C Concentration: · Salt: 2.75% and 2.52% for ham and mortadella, respectively Water Activity: 0.983 and 0.976 for ham and mortadella, respectively pH: 6.09 and 6.11 for ham and mortadella, respectively Spatial Configuration: Slices of 25 to 27 g Pressure: 300, 373, 450, 550, 600, 727, and 800 MPa Other: · Fat content o Ham:4.55% o Mortadella was 17.08% · Lactic acid content o Ham: 6400 mg/kg o Mortadella: 4367 mg/kg |
Time: Pressurization time Pressure: HPP pressure |
Increasing duration time and pressure reduce counts of Listeria. Tailing does appear at pressures 450 MPa and greater. Higher fat content may protect Listeria against HPP. The authors developed models that could model the tailing of Listeria during HPP processing. Then they were able to create secondary models and eventually created contour plots of log reductions by pressure and holding time for ham and mortadella. |
| Hereu A, Dalgaard P, Garriga M, Aymerich T, Bover-Cid S (2014) Analysing and modelling the growth behaviour of Listeria monocytogenes on RTE cooked meat products after a high pressure treatment at 400 MPa. International Journal of Food Microbiology 186:84-94. | FC/NSS | Cooked ham, mortadella | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Refrigeration during storage) High-pressure processing |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · HPP time: 5 min · Storage times: 40, 20, 16 days Temperature: · Storage temperatures: 4, 8, 12°C Concentration: · NaCl: 1.93% · Sodium tripolyphosphate: 0.5% · Dextrose: 0.5% · Sodium erythorbate: 0.05% · Curing salt: 0.085 (12% sodium nitrite) · Added water: 12% Pressure: 400 MPa Other: Inoculation levels: 4 log and 7 log CFU/g |
Time: HPP time Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Pressure: HPP pressure |
Storage time and temperature after the high pressure treatment are very important since the effects of high pressure do not remain. Freeze adapted cells were more pressure-resistant. Time for a 2 log increase was similar for freeze- and cold-adapted cells. The math used in this paper is quite complex and the paper is very comprehensive. |
| Hierro E, Barroso E, de la Hoz L, Ordonez JA, Manzano S, Fernandez M (2011) Efficacy of pulsed light for shelf-life extension and inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes on ready-to-eat cooked meat products. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 12 (3):275-281. | FC/NSS | Heat-processed cooked ham and bologna | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Pulsed light | Pathogen reduction | Time: Time after pulsed light treatment was 0 to 4 hours Temperature: 4°C storage Concentration: 2.2% NaCl and 100 ppm NaNO2 for both ham and bologna Spatial Configuration: 1 mm thick slices; ham was 10.5 cm in diameter; bologna was 5.3 cm in diameter Equipment Settings: 0.7 to 8.4 J/cm2 of light energy delivered 250 µs pulses at 3-4 pulses/minute; spectral output was 30% UV light, 30% infrared radiation, and 40% visible light Other: · Vacuum packaged in 48 µm plastic bags prior to pulsed light treatment · The 4-hour storage after pulsed light treatment was either done in the presence of fluorescent light or without light (wrapped in aluminum foil) |
Other (Pulsed light): | Maximum reductions of 1.78 and 1.11 logs cfu/cm2 were observed on ham and bologna, respectively, with a treatment of 8.4 J/cm2. Fluence ≥ 2.1 J/cm2 in ham; ≥8.4 J/ in bologna were able to reduce Listeria by at least 1 log cfu/cm2. The authors speculate that the fine emulsion of the bologna resulted in more tiny crevasses that could shield bacteria from the pulsed light treatment. No differences were seen between samples that were immediately analyzed and those stored in light or in dark for 4 hours. |
| Hinkens JC, Faith NG, Lorang TD, Bailey P, Buege D, Kaspar CW, Luchansky JB (1996) Validation of pepperoni processes for control of Escherichia coli O157:H7. Journal of Food Protection 59 (12):1260-1266. | NHT/SS | Pepperoni | Pork and beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 14 to 18 hours (until pH ≤5.0) · Heating time: 0 to 60 min · Drying time: 15 to 21 days (to a moisture protein ratio ≤1.6:1) Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 36°C · Heating temperature (internal): 53 to 63°C · Drying temperature: 13°C Concentration: Pepperoni batter formulation contained 156 ppm NaNO2 and ~3.33% NaCl Humidity: · Fermentation: 85-90% RH · Drying: 65% RH Water Activity: · After fermentation: 0.96 to 0.97 · After heating: 0.96 · After drying: 0.87 to 0.90 pH: 4.72 to 4.90 after fermentation Spatial Configuration: 55 mm diameter, 47 cm in length Other: Pepperoni batter had a target fat content of 32% |
Time: Time of heating (if heating is done at 53°C) Temperature: Internal temperature of 63°C instantaneously or 53°C for 1 hour |
Fermentation alone only decreased E. coli O157:H7 levels by <1 log. Heating chubs prior to drying until an internal temperature of 63°C was reached, or for 1 hour at 53°C (internal temperature, was sufficient to reduce E. coli O157:H7 levels by >5 log. |
| Huang L (2015) Dynamic determination of kinetic parameters, computer simulation, and probabilistic analysis of growth of Clostridium perfringens in cooked beef during cooling. International journal of food microbiology 195:20-29. | FC/NSS | Cooked ground beef | Beef | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Temperature · 75°C for heat shock · Incubator cooling temperature: 55 to 27°C, then to 4°C Time: · Heat shock lasted 20 min · Time to cool from 55 to 27°F ranged from 1 to 8 hours · Time to cool from 27 to 4°C ranged from 5 to 22 hours Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples Pressure: Internal pressure within filter bags was 1.3 kPa Other: · Ground beef was 93% lean · Samples were vacuum-packed in a filter bag, sealed, and then placed in a military ready-to-eat bag which contained an oxygen absorber to create an anaerobic environment prevent oxidative stress to the pathogen. |
Time: Temperature: Cooling time between 55 and 27°C and between 27 and 4°C |
Dynamic temperature curves were required for predicting growth of C. perfringens. Results predict the probability of >1 and >2 log CFU/g relative growth of C. perfringens at the end of cooling. Primary growth model: ordinary differential equations consisting of two parts – dormancy and division. Secondary growth model: model of changes to growth rate using the Cardinal parameter model for temperature Numerical analysis and optimization: a complex set of calculations to optimize the models. These calculations are to be used in the USDA Integrated Pathogen Modeling Program. Proper cooling reduces the growth of C. perfringens |
| Huang LH, Juneja VK (2001) A new kinetic model for thermal inactivation of microorganisms: Development and validation using Escherichia coli O157:H7 as a test organism. Journal of Food Protection 64 (12):2078-2082. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ground beef (93% lean) | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Come-up time: 15 sec Heating time: up to 100 min Temperature: 55 to 65°C immersion heating Spatial Configuration: 3 g portions compressed to 1 to 2 mm thickness in a sealed bag; sealed bags were separated by 8 mm in a pre-heated metal rack |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Water bath temperature |
The nonlinear kinetic model described better estimate of thermal inactivation behavior of E. coli in ground beef than traditional linear models. Heating at higher temperature inactivates E. coli. |
| Huang LH, Vinyard BT (2016) Direct dynamic kinetic analysis and computer simulation of growth of Clostridium perfringens in cooked turkey during cooling. Journal of Food Science 81 (3):M692-M701. | FC/NSS | Ground turkey | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Temperature · 75°C for heat shock · Incubator cooling temperature: 55 to 27°C, then to 4°C Time: · Heat shock lasted 20 min · Time to cool from 55 to 27°F ranged from 1 to 8 hours · Time to cool from 27 to 4°C ranged from 5 to 24hours Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples Pressure: Internal pressure within filter bags was 1.3 kPa Other: · Samples were vacuum-packed in a filter bag, sealed, and then placed in a military ready-to-eat bag which contained an oxygen absorber to create an anaerobic environment prevent oxidative stress to the pathogen. |
Time: Temperature: Cooling time between 55 and 27°C and between 27 and 4°C |
More rapid cooling resulted in less predicted growth of C. perfringens. This study resulted in a model that obtained kinetic parameters that describe the potential growth of C. perfringens under dynamic cooking conditions. The validation showed that the residual errors were quite manageable and less than 0.5 log/g. This shows the value of using quantitative risk assessment techniques. |
| Hutchison M, Harrison D, Richardson I, Tchorzewska M (2015) A method for the preparation of chicken liver pate that reliably destroys Campylobacters. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12 (5):4652-4669. | NFC/NSS | Chicken livers and pâté | Chicken | Campylobacter spp. | Temperature control (Pan frying of livers vs. cooking pate in a water bath) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Water bath method: 45 minutes of heating Temperature: · Pan frying of livers: 60°C to 63°C internal temperature · Water bath method: final temperature of pate = 68°C Spatial Configuration: Liver pieces were ~40g |
Time: Time for water batch method of cooking Temperature: Internal temperature using water bath method |
Pan frying chicken livers results in uneven heat application. The centers are often significantly cooler than surfaces. Using a water bath requires a longer time but allows for more even cooking throughout the pate while preserving a pink color and other organoleptic properties. |
| Hwang CA, Juneja V (2011) Effects of salt, sodium pyrophosphate, and sodium lactate on the probability of growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ground beef. Journal of Food Protection 74 (4):622-626. | Raw | Ground beef | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Antimicrobials (Sodium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, sodium lactate) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: 15 days storage Temperature: 10°C storage temperature Concentration: · NaCl (0 to 2.25%) · Sodium pyrophosphate (0 to 0.5%) · Sodium lactate (0 to 3%) Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed into the ground beef Other: · Vacuum packaged, stored for 15 days at 10°C · Ground beef was 7% fat |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: NaCl, sodium pyrophosphate, and sodium lactate concentrations |
Lactate at higher concentrations decreased the probability of growth. The effect was more pronounced at higher NaCl concentrations. Increasing pyrophosphate at low levels of NaCl also tended to reduce E. coli growth. Authors modeled the influence of the ingredients using logistic regression. This is a very specific model where the temperature abuse was at a specific temperature for a specific length of time. The model can identify the probability of growth of E. coli O157:H7 based upon lactate, NaCl, and pyrophosphate concentration at an abusive 10°C. A minimum of around 1.5 to 1.8% lactate would be required to reduce the probability of growth to P<0.1. |
| Hwang CA, Porto-Fett ACS, Juneja VK, Ingham SC, Ingham BH, Luchansky JB (2009) Modeling the survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella Typhimurium during fermentation, drying, and storage of soudjouk-style fermented sausage. International Journal of Food Microbiology 129 (3):244-252. | NFC/NSS | Soudjouk-style fermented sausage | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. |
Water activity control pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: 3 to 5 days · Drying time: until specific water activity was reached · Storage time: up to 60 days Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 24°C · Drying temperature: 22°C · Storage temperature: 4, 21, 30°C Concentration: · Raw batter: 1.9% sodium chloride, 0.25% sodium nitrite Humidity: · Fermentation: 90 to 95% RH · Drying: 80 to 85% RH Water Activity: after drying: 0.92, 0.89, 0.86 pH: After fermentation:5.2, 4.9, 4.6 Spatial Configuration: 25 mm collagen casings tied at 15 cm; each link was ~100 g Other: Vacuum packaged prior to storage |
Temperature: Storage temperature pH: After fermentation Water Activity: After drying |
Greater reductions in E. coli, Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes occurred at lower water activities and lower pH values. The size of the sausage was speculated by the authors to also impact pathogen reductions, although this was not assessed in this study. The model was better able to predict the inactivation of E. coli and Salmonella in this study – predictions by the fermentation and storage models were similar to data reported. |
| Hwang CA, Tamplin ML (2007) Modeling the lag phase and growth rate of Listeria monocytogenes in ground ham containing sodium lactate and sodium diacetate at various storage temperatures. Journal of Food Science 72 (7):M246-M253. | FC/NSS | Ground ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Refrigeration) Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, sodium diacetate) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time: >203 hours Temperature: · Storage temperature: 0, 9.1, 22.5, 45°C Concentration: · From proximate analysis: o Moisture content: 71.1% o Protein 20.27% o Fat: 5.9% o Phosphate: 0.238% o Nitrite: <1 ppm o Erythorbate: < 1 mg/100g o Salt: 1.88% o Added antimicrobials: o Sodium lactate:1 to 4.2% o Sodium diacetate: 0.05 to 0.2% pH: 6.0 to 6.3 before storage Water activity: 0.96 to 0.98 before storage Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed into ground ham Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples of ground ham Other: · Vacuum packaged |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Lactate and diacetate concentrations |
At temperature < 12°C, increasing lactate and diacetate decreased growth rate. Difficult to set critical parameters since the model accommodates different values and their interactions. The paper does illustrate the responses at different storage temperatures. |
| Iacumin L, Manzano M, Comi G (2016) Phage inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes on San Daniele dry-cured ham and elimination of biofilms from equipment and working environments. Microorganisms 4 (1):4. | NHT/SS | Sliced Italian dry-cured hams | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Bacteriophage Listex P100) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Initial phage inoculation period: 24 hours, followed by storage for up to 14 days Temperature: 4°C during inoculation period; 4, 10, and 20 °C during storage Concentration: Up to 8 PFU/cm2 of Listex P100 Water Activity: 0.90 |
Temperature Temperature after application of Listex P100 Concentration Listex P100 bacteriophage titer |
The highest concentration of Listex P100 allowed by FDA is 8 log PFU/g; this concentration was sufficient to eliminate 2 log CFU/cm2 Listeria monocytogenes but could not completely eliminate higher numbers. Greater reductions in L. monocytogenes were observed at lower storage temperatures. The study was limited to a 5-strain Listeria cocktail. |
| Ihnot AM, Roering AM, Wierzba RK, Faith NG, Luchansky JB (1998) Behavior of Salmonella typhimurium DT104 during the manufacture and storage of pepperoni. International Journal of Food Microbiology 40 (1-2):117-121. | NHT/SS | Pepperoni sticks | Pork and beef mixture | Salmonella Typhimurium DT104, a strain associated with higher hospitalization and mortality rates than other non-typhoid strains | Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Fermentation time: until pH was ≤4.8 · Drying time: until the MPR was 1.6:1 · Storage time: 56 days Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 36°C · Drying temperature: 13°C · Storage temperature: 4 or 21°C Humidity: · Fermentation humidity: 92% RH · Drying humidity: 65% RH Other: · Moisture to protein ratio after drying was 1.6:1. · Storage was under vacuum |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature |
Storing pepperoni sticks at ambient temperatures resulted in greater pathogen reductions (3.7 log reduction during drying) than did storage at 4°C (1.7 log reduction). S. Typhimurium DT104 levels were reduced by 2.9 log units in this study. E. coli O157:H7 levels in pepperoni made in related experiments showed lower reductions (Faith et al., 1997; Hinkens et al., 1996). |
| Ingham SC, Buege DR, Dropp BK, Losinski JA (2004) Survival of Listeria monocytogenes during storage of ready-to-eat meat products processed by drying, fermentation, and/or smoking. Journal of Food Protection 67 (12):2698-2702. | FC/NSS | Ready-to-eat meat products including summer sausage, smoked cured beef, beef jerky, snack stick, pork rind, and crackling products | Beef Pork |
Listeria monocytogenes | Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Temperature: Storage temperature: 5°C or 21°C Water Activity: 0.27 to 0.98 pH: 4.7 to 6.7 Other: · % water-phase salt: 3.9 to 69.3 · Packaged either under vacuum or air |
Time Storage time Temperature Storage temperature Water Activity pH |
Processing of RTE products to a water activity of ≤0.75 combined with 1-week storage at 21°C resulted in at least a 1-log reduction of Listeria monocytogenes and prevented further growth to less than 2 log. Processing of sausage to a pH of ≤4.7 and a water activity ≤0.95 combined with 1 week storage at 5°C under vacuum also resulted in at least a 1-log reduction of Listeria monocytogenes and prevented further growth to less than 2 log. See also https://aglearn.usda.gov/customcontent/FSIS/FSIS-RTE-NRTE-01/Module4/media/clsummarycontrol.pdf |
| Ingham SC, DeVita MD, Wadhera RK, Fanslau MA, Buege DR (2005) Evaluation of small-scale hot-water postpackaging pasteurization treatments for destruction of Listeria monocytogenes on ready-to-eat beef snack sticks and natural-casing wieners. Journal of Food Protection 68 (10):2059-2067. | NFC/NSS (although details were not provided to verify this) and FC/NSS | Beef snack sticks and natural-casing wieners | Beef (Not specified for wieners) |
Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Hot-water post-packaging pasteurization as a post-lethality treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Heating time of 0.5 to 6.0 min for individual and 4-and 7-beef stick packages, and 5.0 to 7.0 min for four-packaged wieners Temperature: · Heating temperature of 100°C · Product surface temperature: 39 to 67.5°C for beef sticks; 39.5 to 63.5°C for wieners Dwell Time: 0.5 to 7 min Water Activity: · Beef snack sticks: 0.86 to 0.91 · Wieners: 0.95 to 0.97 pH: · Beef snack sticks: 4.5 to 5.0 · Wieners: 5.9 to 6.3 Spatial Configuration: · Diameter of beef snack sticks: 1.3 to 1.5 cm; wieners: 2.1 to 2.5 cm · In package: 1, 4, or 7 beef sticks per package; 4 wieners per package Other: · Packaging film: product SPP94, material no. CPS302976, Curwood, Inc. · Hot water volume: 2.8 liters · Source of heat: hot plates with maximum power of 1,113 or 1,118 watts |
Time Temperature Spatial configuration |
Hot-water treatment of individual beef sticks for at least 1.0 min reduced L. monocytogenes levels by at least 2 logs CFU/sample Hot-water treatment of 4- and 7-packs of beef sticks for at least 4.0 min reduced L. monocytogenes levels by at least 2 logs CFU/sample Hot-water treatment of 4-packs of wieners for at least 7.0 min reduced L. monocytogenes levels by at least 1 log CFU/sample |
| Ingham SC, Searls G, Mohanan S, Buege DR (2006) Survival of Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes on vacuum-packaged beef jerky and related products stored at 21 degrees C. Journal of Food Protection 69 (9):2263-2267. | HT/SS | Jerky | Beef Buffalo |
Staphylococcus aureus Listeria monocytogenes |
Water activity control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage for 4 weeks Temperature: Storage at 21°C Concentration: Various ingredients; some products contained sodium nitrite, vinegar, citric acid, and potassium sorbate among their ingredients Water Activity: 0.47 to 0.87 pH: 5.0 to 6.3 Spatial Configuration: Jerky strips, 5 to 15 cm in length Other: Moisture protein ratio of 0.13:1 to 0.97:1; jerky was vacuum packaged for storage |
Water Activity: ≤0.87 |
A variety of beef jerky and related products were tested for their ability to support growth of S. aureus and L. monocytogenes when vacuum packaged and stored at 21°C. Products dried to a water activity of ≤0.87 did not permit growth of either pathogen. |
| Ivey FJ, Shaver KJ, Christiansen LN, Tompkin RB (1978) Effect of potassium sorbate on toxinogenesis by Clostridium botulinum in bacon. Journal of Food Protection 41 (8):621-625. | NFC/NSS | Bacon | Pork | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Potassium sorbate) |
Prevention of toxin production | Time: Up to 110 days storage Temperature: · Bacon was smoked to an internal temperature of 53°C · Storage temperature was 27°C Concentration (in pickle solution): · 13.3% sodium chloride · Nitrite: 0 to 40 ppm NaNO2 · Sodium erythorbate: 550 ppm · Potassium sorbate: 0.13 and 0.26% pH: 6.10 to 6.35 Product Coverage: Sorbate was in formulation Spatial Configuration: 6 slices of inoculated bacon were stacked and placed into plastic pouches Other: · Vacuum sealed · Bacon chemical analysis: o 1 to 31 ppm NaNO2 o 80 to 2653 ppm potassium sorbate o 1.2 to 1.4% salt o 25.8 to 39.6% moisture o 8.3 to 10.6% protein o 48.0 to 63.5% fat |
Concentration: Nitrite Sorbate |
Sorbate was incorporated with nitrite in the pickle for the bacon Sorbate delayed C. botulinum toxin formation independent of the presence of nitrite. USDA FSIS does not currently allow sorbate use for this type of product. |
| Jaloustre S, Cornu M, Morelli E, Noel V, Delignette-Muller ML (2011) Bayesian modeling of Clostridium perfringens growth in beef-in-sauce products. Food Microbiology 28 (2):311-320. | FC/NSS | Cooked beef-in-sauce product | Beef | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Beef in sauce product was cooked for 2 hours, then boiled for 1 hour, then cooled for 2-3 hours · Storage time after cooking was 2-3 days Temperature: · Storage temperature: 4°C · Reheating temperature: 60°C Concentration: · Salt: less than 1% · Uncured Other: Anaerobically packaged |
Time: Temperature: Cooling time and temperatures |
Authors used a Bayesian modeling approach to create a probabilistic model for determining lag time and maximal specific growth rate for C. perfringens in beef-in-sauce products. Data were gathered from 14 studies. The authors tested three models in the study to determine the difference modeling variability would make on the output. They chose model B2 (inter-study variability on ho). This model was subsequently used to predict the growth of C. perfringens during the preparation of boon-in-sauce products using temperature profiles from a hospital kitchen. Product temperature influences the potential growth of Clostridium perfringens |
| Juneja V, Mukhopadhyay S, Marks H, Mohr TB, Warning A, Datta A (2014a) Predictive thermal inactivation model for effects and interactions of temperature, NaCl, sodium pyrophosphate, and sodium lactate on Listeria monocytogenes in ground beef. Food and Bioprocess Technology 7 (2):437-446. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ground beef, 75% lean | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Heating time at a temperature Temperature: Water bath temperatures: 55 to 71.1°C Concentration: · NaCl: 0 to 4.5% · Sodium pyrophosphate: 0 to 0.5% · Sodium lactate: 0 to 4.8% Spatial Configuration: 3 g samples, pressed into a thin layer of 0.5 to 1 mm Other: Ground beef: 75% lean |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Heating temperature Concentration: Concentration of salt, lactate, and pyrophosphate |
The thermal Inactivation can be modeled and depends upon the levels of salt and pyrophosphate. Temperature had the most influence followed by salt content. The lactate level was less of a factor. The report includes a table of the expected times to achieve a 5- or 6-log reduction of Listeria for selected temperatures, salt, lactate, and pyrophosphate levels can be useful. |
| Juneja VK, Baker DA, Thippareddi H, Snyder OP, Jr., Mohr TB (2013) Growth potential of Clostridium perfringens from spores in acidified beef, pork, and poultry products during chilling. Journal of Food Protection 76 (1):65-71. | NFC/NSS | Ground beef (93% lean) and commercially prepared pit-cooked beef brisket, pit-cooked pork shoulder, rotisserie-cooked pork shoulder, boiled beef, rotisserie-cooked chicken | Beef Pork Chicken |
Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling Prevention of spore germination and outgrowth |
Time: · Ground beef cooking time: linear temperature increase over 1 hour to 71°C · Isothermal (44°C) temperature incubation of 21 hours · Chilling time: 6 to 21 hours (to go from 54.4 to 7.2°C) Temperature: See above Concentration: Commercial products tested contained barbeque sauce, chili sauce, or were rubbed with seasonings pH: · Ground beef was acidified with organic vinegar to pH 5.0 to 5.6 · pH of commercial items ranged from 4.74 to 6.35 Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples flattened to ~2 mm Other: Low (2-log) or high (4-log inoculum levels were tested |
Time: Chilling time, isothermal incubation time Temperature: Chilling temperature, incubation temperature pH: pH of meat |
In ground beef, growth of C. perfringens was inhibited at pH ≤ 5.5 even under abusive chilling conditions. 15 hr. of cooling from 54.4 to 7.2°C was sufficient to keep growth less than 1 log at pH 5.6. In other products, no growth was observed in pH ranging from 4.74 to 5.17, even after storing at 44°C for 21 hours. Manipulating pH values for barbeque type products can be a way of inhibiting potential growth of C. perfringens under abusive cooling conditions. |
| Juneja VK, Cadavez V, Gonzales-Barron U, Mukhopadhyay S (2015) Modelling the effect of pH, sodium chloride and sodium pyrophosphate on the thermal resistance of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ground beef. Food Research International 69:289-304. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Raw ground beef, 75% lean | Beef | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Heating time: 0.83 to 190 min Temperature: · Internal temperature: 55, 57.5, 60.0, or 62.5°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 6.0% wt/wt · Sodium pyrophosphate: 0.0, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.3% wt/wt pH: 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples, pressed to about 1 mm thickness Other: Ground beef was 75% lean |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Internal temperature Concentration: NaCl, sodium pyrophosphate pH |
Thermal resistance of E. coli depends upon salt, pH, and sodium pyrophosphate concentration in the ground beef. Maximum resistance for salt is between 2.7 & 4.7%, for sodium pyrophosphate it is around 0.16%, for pH it is between 6.0 and 6.7. These factors interact together. This paper offers a model to predict thermal resistance of E. coli O157:H7. |
| Juneja VK, Eblen BS, Marks HM (2001a) Modeling non-linear survival curves to calculate thermal inactivation of Salmonella in poultry of different fat levels. International Journal of Food Microbiology 70 (1-2):37-51. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Ground poultry | Chicken Turkey |
Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Heating time Temperature: Heated to 58°C, 60°C, 62.5°C or 65°C in water baths Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples were flattened to ~1-2 mm Other: · Fat content of chicken: 2%, 6.3% fat, 9% fat, 12% fat · Fat content of turkey: 1% fat, 7% fat, 10% fat, 12% fat |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Internal temperature Other: · Fat content · Species (chicken vs. turkey) |
Lag times increased at higher fat levels. Influence of fat level varied by fat level and species. The increase in D-value with increasing fat was greater for chicken than for turkey. Z-values were not dependent on the fat levels. The z-values for turkey and chicken were estimated to be 6.1 and 5.5°C, respectively. Table 7 show the estimated times at the respective temperatures that result in a 7-log reduction of Salmonella spp. in ground turkey and chicken containing different amounts of fat. |
| Juneja VK, Eblen BS, Ransom GM (2001b) Thermal inactivation of Salmonella spp. in chicken broth, beef, pork, turkey, and chicken: Determination of D- and Z-values. Journal of Food Science 66 (1):146-152. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Chicken broth, ground beef, ground pork, ground chicken, ground turkey | Beef Pork Chicken Turkey |
Salmonella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Heating times: various · Come-up times: <1 to 2 sec Temperature: · Heating temperature/internal temperature: 55, 58, 60, 62°C pH: 6.3 for chicken broth; 6.0 for chicken meat Other: Proximate analysis of meats were included in the original reference |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Internal temperature |
D-values decrease as temperature increased. The study shows tables of D-values by temperature for beef, pork, turkey, and chicken. These values can be used when designing or calculating cumulative lethality of a given thermal process. To achieve a 7-log reduction Salmonella spp., aground meats should be heated to an internal temperature of 60.0°C for the following times: · Ground beef: 53.1 min · Ground pork: 49.5 min · Ground turkey: 33.74 min · Ground chicken: 36.33 min |
| Juneja VK, Friedman M (2007) Carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, oregano oil, and thymol inhibit Clostridium perfringens spore germination and outgrowth in ground turkey during chilling. Journal of Food Protection 70 (1):218-222. | FC/NSS | Cooked ground turkey | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, oregano oil, and thymol) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Inoculated product was cooked to 60°C in 1 hour · Chilling time from 54.4 to 7.2°C took from 12-21 hours exponentially Temperature: · Inoculated product was cooked to 60°C · Chilling from 54.4°C to 7.2°C Concentration: 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% (wt/wt) of plant-derived carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, or oregano oil Product Coverage: Mixed with cooked ground turkey Other: After inoculation, samples were vacuum packaged to a negative pressure of 1000 millibars prior to heat treatment/shocking and cooking |
Time: Rate of exponential chilling Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobial |
Even the lowest concentrations of the antimicrobials generally inhibited C. perfringens germination and outgrowth in a concentration-dependent manner. At concentrations of 0.1 to 0.5%, all test compounds inhibited spore germination and outgrowth at 12 hours of exponential cooling. Longer chilling times required higher concentrations to inhibit spore germination and growth. Cinnamaldehyde was more effective than other compounds at the 21-hour chilling rate. |
| Juneja VK, Garcia-Davila J, Lopez-Romero JC, Pena-Ramos EA, Camou JP, Valenzuela-Melendres M (2014b) Modeling the effects of temperature, sodium chloride, and green tea and their interactions on the thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes in turkey. Journal of Food Protection 77 (10):1696-1702. | NFC/NSS | Ground turkey (92% lean) | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Heating time: up to 185 min · Come-up times: <30 seconds Temperature: 55, 57, 60, 63, 65°C Concentration: · Green tea extract: 0, 0.6, 1.5, 2.4, 3% polyphenol extract · NaCl: 0, 0.4, 1, 1.6, 2% Product Coverage: NaCl and green tea extract were mixed into ground turkey Spatial Configuration: 3 g samples pressed 0.5 to 1 mm thick |
Time: Heating time Temperature: Heating temperature Concentration: Green tea extract and NaCl |
D-values decreased as temperature increased. D-values increased as salt concentration increased, D-values decreased as green tea extract increased, but some interactions existed. The model can be used to illustrate the sometimes complex interactions of the ingredients used in ground turkey and their influence on thermal inactivation of Listeria. |
| Juneja VK, Marks H, Huang LH, Thippareddi H (2011) Predictive model for growth of Clostridium perfringens during cooling of cooked uncured meat and poultry. Food Microbiology 28 (4):791-795. | FC/NSS | Uncured, ground meat | Beef Pork Chicken |
Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Heat shock time: 20 min · Cooling time: 54.4 to 27°C, then 27 to 4°C Temperature: · Heat shock temperature: 75°C · Cooling temperatures: 54.4 to 27°C, then 27 to 4°C Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples Other: · Vacuum packaged · Species of meat |
Time: Temperature: Cooling time and temperatures |
This paper determined parameters useful for predicting growth of C. perfringens under dynamic temperature conditions. This is a technical paper specifying how to better predict the potential growth of C. perfringens under dynamic temperature conditions during stabilization. The results can be used by those modeling under these conditions. Similar growth kinetics were observed for pork and chicken, with slightly greater growth for beef. However, the model under-predicted the relative growth in pork when relative growth was large. |
| Juneja VK, Marks H, Thippareddi HH (2010) Predictive model for growth of Clostridium perfringens during cooling of cooked ground pork. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 11 (1):146-154. | FC/NSS | Cooked, uncured, ground pork | Pork | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Heat shock time: 20 min · Time between 54.4 and 27°C: 1.5 to 3 hours · Time between 27 and 4°C: 0 to 15 hours Temperature: · Heat shock temperature: 75°C · Cooling temperatures between 10 and 51°C for isothermal experiments · Cooling temperatures between 54.4 and 27°C and 27°C and 4°C for dynamic cooling experiments Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples pressed to ~1 mm thickness Other: Vacuum sealed in low-oxygen transmission packages |
Time: Temperature: Cooling time and temperatures |
This study examined spore germination and outgrowth at different cooling times and temperatures to develop a predictive model. This model seems to work well and reduces the number of over predictions for growth. The study resulted in a model capable of predicting the growth of C. perfringens based upon dynamic temperature changes. The derived value for qo was not used in the final model. Authors recommended the use of qo – 0.04 to provide more fail safe estimates. |
| Juneja VK, Marks HM (2002) Predictive model for growth of Clostridium perfringens during cooling of cooked cured chickens. Food Microbiology 19 (4):313-327. | FC/NSS | Cured ground chicken | Chicken | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · 1 hour to heat shock from 10°C to 60°C · Growth time: up to 21 days Temperature: · Heat shock: from 10 to 60°C in 1 hour · Subsequent incubations at 10 to 48.9°C Concentration: 120 ppm sodium nitrite, Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples Other: · Chicken contained 12% fat, 71% moisture, 2% ash, and 15% protein · Samples were vacuum packaged |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature |
The authors showed that the Baranyi model fit the primary data better than other models. Changes in temperature were modeled using the Ratkowsky function. The authors recommend the use of a nonlinear mixed model analysis rather than the typical two-stage approach typically used for such data. Proper cooling reduces the growth potential of C. perfringens in cured chicken. |
| Juneja VK, Marmer BS, Phillips JG, Miller AJ (1995) Influence of the intrinsic properties of food on thermal inactivation of spores of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum: Development of a predictive model. Journal of Food Safety 15 (4):349-364. | NFC/NSS | Turkey slurry | Turkey | Clostridium botulinum (non-proteolytic) |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Heat treatments: 15 to 45 min · Come-up times: 2 to 4 min Temperature: Heating temperature: 70 to 90°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 0 to 3% · Sodium pyrophosphate: 0 to 0.3% · (pH was adjusted with lactic acid) pH: 5 to 6.5, adjusted with lactic acid Product Coverage: Salt and sodium pyrophosphate were mixed into turkey slurry |
Time: Temperature: Heat treatment Concentration: NaCl and sodium pyrophosphate pH |
Reduced pH may increase inactivation at higher temperature, especially in the presence of combinations of salt and sodium pyrophosphate. Due to the factorial arrangement of the treatments, the authors were able to develop a multiple regression model to predict D-values for any combination of salt, sodium pyrophosphate and pH with in the ranges tested. |
| Juneja VK, Thippareddi H (2004a) Control of Clostridium perfringens in a model roast beef by salts of organic acids during chilling. Journal of Food Safety 24 (2):95-108. | FC/NSS | Model roast beef product made from ground inside beef rounds, salt, potato starch, and potassium tetra pyrophosphate | Beef | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Sodium lacate [PurasalTM], sodium lactate with sodium diacetate [OptiformTM], buffered sodium citrate [IonalTM], buffered sodium citrate with sodium diacetate [Ional PlusTM]) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Inoculated product was cooked to 60°C in 1 hour, then equilibrated for 10 min at 54.4°C · Chilling time from 54.4 to 7.2°C took 18 or 21 hours exponentially Temperature: · Inoculated product was cooked from room temperature to 60°C · Chilling from 54.4°C to 7.2°C Concentration: · Purasal: 1.5 to 4.8% · Optiform: 1.5 to 4.8% · Ional: 0.75 to 1.30% · Ional Plus: 0.75 to 1.30% pH: 5.51 to 5.77 Product Coverage: antimicrobials were mixed with meat Other: Product was vacuum packaged (2 in. x 3 in) after inoculation prior to heat treatment |
Time: Rate of cooling Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials |
All of the antimicrobials inhibited germination and outgrowth of C. perfringens spores during 18 or 21-hour exponential chilling; Ional Plus and Ional were more effective than Purasal and Optiform at similar concentrations. Incorporation of all antimicrobial ingredients (except 0.75% Ional Plus) resulted in ≤1 log CFU/g increase of the pathogen during 18 hours of chilling. Incorporation of all antimicrobial ingredients (except 0.75% Ional Plus and Purasal at 1.5%) resulted in ≤1 log CFU/g increase of the pathogen during 21 hours of chilling. |
| Juneja VK, Thippareddi H (2004b) Inhibitory effects of organic acid salts on growth of Clostridium perfringens from spore inocula during chilling of marinated ground turkey breast. International Journal of Food Microbiology 93 (2):155-163. | FC/NSS | Uncured, cooked, marinated ground turkey breast | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate, sodium acetate, buffered sodium citrate, and buffered sodium citrate with sodium diacetate) |
Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth | Time: 15 to 21 h chill rates Temperature: Chilling from 54.4 to 7.2°C Concentration: · Formulation contained 0.85% NaCl in final product and 0.2% potassium tetra pyrophosphate · Sodium lactate: 1 to 4% · Sodium acetate: 1 or 2% · Buffered sodium citrate: 1% (IonalTM) · Buffered sodium citrate with sodium diacetate: 1% (Ional PlusTM) pH: 5.72 to 6.06 Product Coverage: in formulation Other: inoculated product was packaged in cook-in bags and vacuum sealed prior to cooking and chilling |
Time: Concentration: |
While sodium lactate and sodium acetate concentrations of 1% were sufficient to control C. perfringens germination and outgrowth (<1.0 log CFU/g growth) following 15 h chill rates, higher concentrations were required for 18 and 21 h chill rates. Ional at 1% concentration was effective in inhibiting germination and outgrowth to <1.0 log CFU/g of C. perfringens for all three chill rates (15, 18 and 21 h) tested. The authors caution that germination and outgrowth potential of C. perfringens spores differs with each meat substrate and is dependent upon other intrinsic characteristics, including the pH of the meat. |
| Juneja VK, Thippareddi H, Bari L, Inatsu Y, Kawamoto S, Friedman M (2006) Chitosan protects cooked ground beef and turkey against Clostridium perfringens spores during chilling. Journal of Food Science 71 (6):M236-M240. | FC/NSS | Cooked ground beef and turkey | Beef Turkey |
Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Chitosan) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: Cooling time of 12, 15, 18, or 21 hours Temperature: Cooling from 54.4 to 7.2°C Concentration: 0.5, 1, 2, or 3% chitosan Product Coverage: Chitosan was mixed with raw ground meat Spatial Configuration: 5 g of meat Other: % fat in beef (25%) and in turkey (7%); 5g samples of meat were vacuum packaged during cooking at 60°C for 1 hour |
Time: 3% chitosan was effective during 12, 15, or 18 hours (but not 21 hours) of cooling Concentration: 3% chitosan was most effective |
Both beef and turkey exhibited similar trends, but actual log increases varied among treatments. · Control (0%) allowed ~4-5 log increase at 12 h for both meat matrices · 0.5% and 1.0% chitosan allowed 1-2 log increase at 12 h · 2.0% chitosan inhibited growth (<1 log increase) for 15 h in ground turkey, but allowed a 2 log increase in ground beef · 3.0% chitosan inhibited growth (<0.5 log increase) for 18 h in both meat matrices |
| Juneja VK, Valenzuela-Melendres M, Heperkan D, Bautista D, Anderson D, Hwang CA, Pena-Ramos A, Camou JP, Torrentera-Olivera N (2016) Development of a predictive model for Salmonella spp. reduction in meat jerky product with temperature, potassium sorbate, pH, and water activity as controlling factors. International Journal of Food Microbiology 236:1-8. | NHT/SS | Ground beef jerky | Beef | Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (Potassium sorbate) Water activity control (Drying) pH control |
Pathogen reduction | Temperature: 65, 70, 75, 80, 85°C to achieve desired final water activity Concentration: · Potassium sorbate: 0, 0.75, 0.15, 0.225, 0.30% · Jerky also contained 1.5% Morton Tender Quick mix Humidity: 5% during drying Water Activity: 0.65, 0.70, 0.80, 0.85 pH: 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0 adjusted with phosphoric acid or sodium phosphate Product Coverage: Potassium sorbate and Quick mix were mixed with ground beef Spatial Configuration: Jerky strips were about 1.12 x 0.6 x 11 cm and weighed about 15 g each Other: · Ground beef was 95% lean, 5% fat |
Temperature: Heating temperature Concentration: Potassium sorbate Water Activity pH |
Since slow drying with low humidity conditions can result in survival of Salmonella in jerky, this study shows that Salmonella can be inactivated at low humidity by manipulating several other factors including pH and potassium sorbate. Log reductions of Salmonella as high as 5 log CFU/g can be achieved using combination of temperature, pH and potassium sorbate even with low water activities. The response surface plots of this study illustrate the interactions between the main factors of pH, temperature, pH and potassium sorbate on the log reductions and the inactivation rate of Salmonella spp. in beef jerky. |
| Kennedy KM, Milkowski AL, Glass KA (2013) Inhibition of Clostridium perfringens growth by potassium lactate during an extended cooling of cooked uncured ground turkey breasts. Journal of Food Protection 76 (11):1972-1976. | FC/NSS | Cooked, uncured, skinless, boneless ground turkey breasts | Turkey | Clostridium perfringens | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate) |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Cooling from 71°C to 4°C was performed via 10 or 12 hour linear cooling protocols Temperature: · Inoculated fresh turkey meat was cooked to 71°C in a 73.3°C water bath · Cooked turkey meat was cooled to 4°C Concentration: · Formula included 1.4% NaCl and 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate · Final NaCl content was 1.54 to 1.59% · 0 to 2% potassium lactate (pure basis) Water Activity: 0.973 to 0.976 pH: 6.18 to 6.28 Product Coverage: Potassium lactate was mixed with ground meat Spatial Configuration: 100 g portions were vacuum-sealed in boilable oxygen- and moisture-impermeable bags Other: % moisture was 74.6 to 76.4 |
Time: Rate of cooling Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials |
Less than 1-log increase in C. perfringens growth occured with 2% potassium lactate during both the 10- and 12-h linear cooling protocols. Compared with the control, 2% potassium lactate inhibited growth by 2.65 and 4.21 log CFU/g in the 10- and 12-h cooling protocols, respectively. |
| King AM, Glass KA, Milkowski AL, Seman DL, Sindelar JJ (2016) Modeling the impact of ingoing sodium nitrite, sodium ascorbate, and residual nitrite concentration on growth parameters of Listeria monocytogenes in cooked, cured pork sausage. Journal of Food Protection 79 (2):184-193. | FC/NSS | Cooked, cured pork sausage | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium nitrite and sodium ascorbate) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage up to 28 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 7°C Concentration: · Ingoing sodium nitrite: 0 to 352 ppm · Sodium ascorbate: 0 to 643 ppm · Residual nitrite: · Salt: 1.8% in all formulations Water Activity: 0.98 pH: 6.6 Spatial configuration: 17 g slices Other · Moisture: 65% across all formulations · Vacuum packaging |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Ingoing and residual nitrite |
The study suggests that ingoing and residual nitrite levels can affect growth of Listeria monocytogenes in a complex manner. Both ingoing and residual nitrite concentrations affected the lag time for Listeria growth. Ingoing nitrite concentration was most important impacting the Listeria growth rate. Ingoing ascorbate indirectly affects L. monocytogenes control by influencing residual nitrite levels. |
| Kumar Badvela M, Schroeder W (2015) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by buffered vinegar-based antimicrobials in ready-to-eat, low-sodium, uncured turkey. Journal of Food Protection 78 (Suppl. A):266. | FC/NSS | Uncured, low-sodium, RTE turkey | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Dry buffered vinegar) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 12 weeks of storage Temperature: 4°C Concentration: 0.4%, 0.6%, and 0.8% dry buffered vinegar (DBV), and 0.5%, 0.7%, and 0.9% DBV-low sodium Salt concentration in the final product was 1.4% Water Activity: 0.980 to 0.984 pH: 6.27 to 6.34 Product Coverage: In formulation Spatial Configuration: 25 g slices, packaged 4 slices/pack Other: · Fat content ranged from 0.50 to 0.62% · Moisture contents ranged from 75.23 to 75.93% · Slices were vacuum packaged in gas-impermeable pouches (3-mil high barrier nylon) |
Time: Storage time Concentration: · 0.6% or 0.8% dry buffered vinegar (DBV) · 0.7% and 0.9% DBV-low sodium |
Addition of 0.6% and 0.8% DBV and 0.7% and 0.9% DBV-low sodium inhibited growth of L. monocytogenes (<1 log over 12 weeks) compared to control. |
| Legan JD, Seman DL, Milkowski AL, Hirschey JA, Vandeven MH (2004) Modeling the growth boundary of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat cooked meat products as a function of the product salt, moisture, potassium lactate, and sodium diacetate concentrations. Journal of Food Protection 67 (10):2195-2204. | FC/NSS | Model cured bologna-style products, turkey breast, cooked beef patties, cooked chicken breast, cotto salami, reduced fat and regular bologna, ham, turkey bacon, wieners | Beef Pork Chicken Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium chloride, potassium lactate, sodium diacetate, sodium nitrite) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 18 weeks storage time Temperature: 4°C storage temperature Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 0.8, 1.5, 2.2, 2.9, 3.6% (wt/wt) · Potassium lactate syrup (60%): 0.25, 2.5, 4.75, 7.0, 9.25% (wt/wt) · Sodium diacetate: 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.2% (wt/wt) · Sodium nitrite (concentration not specified, but cured products contained at least 100 mg/kg of sodium nitrite in the formulation) Other: · Products were vacuum sealed during storage · Moisture: 45.5, 55.0, 64.5, 74, 83.5% |
Time: Storage time Concentration: · Sodium chloride · Potassium lactate · Sodium diacetate · Sodium nitrite |
This paper describes development and validation of a model to predict growth of L. monocytogenes in cured RTE meat products which may be extended to uncured meat products upon additional validation. The model illustrates the ability of lactate and diacetate to influence time-to-growth (1 log increase) in products of varying salt and moisture contents. A dose-dependent response of listeria to added lactate and diacetate was observed, which was also influenced by product moisture and salt content. This paper shows a second way of analyzing the data from Seman DL, Borger AC, Meyer JD, Hall PA, Milkowski AL (2002) Modeling the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in cured ready-to-eat processed meat products by manipulation of sodium chloride, sodium diacetate, potassium lactate, and product moisture content. Journal of Food Protection 65 (4):651-658. by using Lifetime regression. |
| Leistner L, Rodel W (1975) The significance of water activity for micro-organisms in meats. In: Duckworth DB (ed) Water Relations of Foods. Academic Press, New York, pp 309-323. | NHT/SS HT/SS |
Meat products that will not be refrigerated | Not specified | Not specified | Water activity control pH control |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Water Activity: Alone, or in combination with reduced pH pH: Alone, or in combination with reduced water activity |
Water Activity: See below pH: See below Meat products are shelf-stable under the following conditions: · pH ≤ 5.2 and aw ≤ 0.95, or · pH < 5.0, or · aw < 0.91 |
The more recent Tilkens study (Tilkens et al., 2015) suggests that a product with a pH of 5.6 and an aw of 0.88 is “marginal” in terms of its ability to inhibit S. aureus. |
| Maas MR, Glass KA, Doyle MP (1989) Sodium lactate delays toxin production by Clostridium botulinum in cook-in-bag turkey products. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 55 (9):2226-2229. | Other | Cook-in-bag (raw) turkey | Turkey | Clostridium botulinum | Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate) |
Prevention of toxin production | Time: · Cook time: immersion in an 88°C water bath until the internal temperature reached 71.1°C · Storage temperature: up to 10 days Temperature: · Initial cook to an internal temperature of 71.1°C · Storage temperature: 27°C Concentration: 0 to 3.5% sodium lactate; all formulations contained 1.4% sodium chloride and 0.3% sodium phosphate pH: 6.29 to 6.34 Product Coverage: in formulation Spatial Configuration: 225 g of comminuted turkey in each package prior to cooking Other: · Inoculated turkey was vacuum packaged in polyolefin and ethylene vinyl alcohol pouches · Protein: 20.7 to 21.5% · Moisture: 68.0 to 68.5% · Fat: 6.2 to 7.0 |
Time: Concentration: Sodium lactate at concentrations ≥2% sodium lactate delayed toxin production relative to controls |
Lactate delayed botulinum toxin production in a concentration-dependent manner. |
| Mangalassary S, Han I, Rieck J, Acton J, Jiang X, Sheldon B, Dawson P (2007) Effect of combining nisin and/or lysozyme with in-package pasteurization on thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat turkey bologna. Journal of Food Protection 70 (11):2503-2511. | FC/NSS | Turkey bologna | Turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control (Post-lethality treatment: in-package pasteurization) Antimicrobials (Nisin, lysozyme) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Time of heat treatment was 10 to 120 seconds Temperature: 60, 62.5, 65°C surface temperature during heat treatment of bologna slices Concentration: · Nisin: 5,000 AU/ml=31.25 AU/cm2 · Lysozyme: 80 AU/ml = 0.5 AU/cm2 · Nisin/lysozyme mixture: 31.75 AU/cm2 Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were added to surface of bologna slices Spatial Configuration: Bologna slices were 2.5 mm thick and 4 x 4 cm in width and length Other: · Low fat bologna was used (14.3% fat, 2% salt) in these experiments. |
Time: Time of heat treatment Temperature: Temperature of heat treatment Concentration: Presence of nisin |
This study tested the ability of nisin and lysozyme (applied to the surface of bologna slices) followed by an in-package pasteurization step to reduce L. monocytogenes level. Nisin alone and with lysozyme resulted in some (~0.5 log) immediate reduction in Listeria counts even prior to heat treatment. Nisin alone and the nisin-lysozyme mixture were more effective than controls or lysozyme alone in inhibiting Listeria following in-package pasteurization at 62.5 and 65°C but not 60°C.. Although not tested in this study, the authors note that food product type and packaging materials likely impact the degree of inactivation obtained during in-package pasteurization. |
| Mataragas M, Alessandria V, Rantsiou K, Cocolin L (2015a) Evaluation of the Listeria monocytogenes inactivation during post-process storage of fermented sausages: A basis for the development of a decision support tool. Food Control 50:568-573. | NHT/SS | Fermented sausages: Pepperoni (American style), Italian-style fermented sausage, Greek-style fermented sausage, Soudjouk-style fermented sausage, Sucuk, dry fermented sausage |
Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Storage/holding | Pathogen reduction | Time: Up to 80 days storage/holding Temperature: 4 to 30°C during storage Water Activity: 0.82 to 0.92 pH: 4.5 to 5.0 Other: Vacuum packaged All samples used starter cultures and contained nitrite. |
Time: Temperature: Time and temperature during storage Water Activity pH |
This report developed a model that calculates the time to a 4D reduction in L. monocytogenes at different storage temperatures using data from previously published studies. The models predict the desired time/temperature combinations that result in additional listeria reduction during storage of fermented sausages. The model should only be used within the limits used in its development (water activity, pH, and storage temperatures shown in the Experimental/Identified Parameters column). |
| Mataragas M, Bellio A, Rovetto F, Astegiano S, Decastelli L, Cocolin L (2015b) Risk-based control of food-borne pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica in the Italian fermented sausages Cacciatore and Felino. Meat Science 103:39-45. | NHT/SS | Cacciatore and Felino fermented sausages | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. |
Water activity control pH control |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Heating time: 8 hours (Felino only) · Fermentation time: 10 and 24 hr. · Ripening time: 20 or 40 days Temperature: · Heating temperature: 20 to 22°C · Fermentation temperature: 15 to 22 °C · Ripening temperature: 12 to 17°C Concentration: · Sodium nitrite: 0.02% for Cacciatore 0% for Felino · Potassium nitrate: 0.014% for Cacciatore and 0.015% for Felino · Salt: 2.2% for Cacciatore and 2.4% for Felino Humidity: Varies during heating, fermentation and ripening steps; see paper Water Activity: · Cacciatore: 0.976 to 0.978 (initial) to 0.922 to 0.923 (end of fermentation) · Felino: 0.964 to 0.971 (initial) to 0.928 to 0.936 (end of fermentation) pH: · Cacciatore: 5.7 (initial) to 4.8 (end of fermentation) · Felino: 5.8 to 5.9 (initial) to 5.1 (end of fermentation) to 5.3 after ripening Other: · A commercial starter culture was used · More details regarding sausage formulations can be found in the reference. |
Time: Fermentation time, ripening time Temperature: Fermentation temperature, ripening temperature Water Activity pH |
Both Listeria and Salmonella survived the fermentation/ripening processes testing in this study, with Listeria surviving better. Authors found the log-linear model to be superior to the Weibull model. Authors were able to predict the counts of both Listeria and Salmonella in cacciatore and Felino based upon the model inputs. If the initial counts in the raw materials is high, then the final product may contain unacceptable levels of pathogens. |
| Mataragas M, Bellio A, Rovetto F, Astegiano S, Greci C, Hertel C, Decastelli L, Cocolin L (2015c) Quantification of persistence of the food-borne pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica during manufacture of Italian fermented sausages. Food Control 47:552-559. | NHT/SS | Italian fermented sausages. Cacciatore, Felino, Milano | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. |
Water activity control pH control |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Heating: 8 hours · Fermentation: 10 to 24 hours · Drying: 20 to 40 days Temperature: · Heating: 19 to 25°C · Fermentation: 12 to 23°C · Drying: 12 to 17°C Concentration: · Salt: 2.2 to 2.5% · Sodium nitrite: 0 to 0.03% · Potassium nitrate: 0.014 to 0.015% · Ascorbate: 0.05 to 0.07% Humidity: · Heating: 92 to 95% RH · Fermentation: 55 to 88%RH · Drying: 70 to 88% RH Water Activity: initially 0.970 to 0.980; final values 0.930 to 0.940 pH: initially 5.65 to 5.85; final values 4.85 to 5.00 Spatial Configuration: 46 to 100 mm casings Other: Sausages were inoculated with a mold culture prior to ripening |
Time: Fermentation time, ripening time Temperature: Fermentation temperature, ripening temperature Water Activity pH |
Results were similar to other papers by Mataragas et al. Fermentation especially drying and ripening does reduce the survival of both Listeria and Salmonella. However, reductions were usually less than 1 to 1.5 log CFU/g. Interesting that the processing of these items does inactivate Listeria and Salmonella enterica, it only reduces the survivors by 1 to 1.5 logs. The authors compare the performance of several models. Salmonella enterica was more sensitive than Listeria monocytogenes during fermentation/drying. Both pathogens could survive fermentation and ripening. Water activity was a key factor in pathogen survival. This study emphasizes the need for low counts in the raw materials. |
| Mataragas M, Rantsiou K, Alessandria V, Cocolin L (2015d) Estimating the non-thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes in fermented sausages relative to temperature, pH and water activity. Meat Science 100:171-178. | NHT/SS | Fermented sausages, Sremska, Sudjuk, fermented dry sausage (Croatia and Hungary), Italian-style fermented sausage, American-style fermented sausage, minisalami )German style), Norwegian-style fermented dry sausage, French, Finnish style. |
Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control Water activity control pH control |
Pathogen reduction | Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 17.7 to 38°C · Ripening temperature: 8 to 23.0°C Concentration: various levels of salt, bacteriocins, nitrate, nitrite, sodium lactate, starter cultures, etc. were used in some studies but not specified Water Activity: 0.8 to 0.98 pH: 4.4 to 6.2 |
Temperature: Fermentation and ripening temperatures Water Activity pH |
This reference describes the derivation of a model using data from 13 studies from the literature that did not include a specific heat treatment. Results are similar to previous models. Inactivation rates decreased at higher pH values, higher water activities, and lower temperature. Temperature explained 60% of the influence of fermentation/ripening of fermented sausages while pH and water activity played only a small part. Temperature by itself is insufficient in activating Listeria, but when combined with the pH and water activity values typical of fermentation, inactivation was dominated by temperature. |
| McQuestin OJ, Shadbolt CT, Ross T (2009) Quantification of the relative effects of temperature, pH, and water activity on inactivation of Escherichia coli in fermented meat by meta-analysis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 75 (22):6963-6972. | NHT/SS | Fermented meats, dry fermented sausage, semidry beef summer sausage Soudjouk, Lebanon bologna, salami, pepperoni, BHI broth, minisalami, Luria-Bertani broth, Norwegian fermented dry sausage, short-ripened fermented sausage, Hungarian fermented sausage, Greek dry fermented sausage, Cooked meat medium, nutrient broth TSB, 0.1% peptone water | Not specified | E. coli species | Temperature control Water activity control (Drying) pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Temperature: -20 to 66°C Water Activity: 0.75 to 0.986 pH: 2.8 to 6.14 |
Temperature Water Activity pH |
Data obtained from 44 independent studies representing 484 rate data points for inactivation of E. coli in fermented meat products were used to develop a model. Inactivation of E. coli is faster at lower pH and water activity values. Inactivation rates increase with temperature. Temperature represented 61% of the variation in the analysis. pH and water activity account for less than 8% of the variation for the inactivation of E. coli. Although the temperatures usually used during fermentation are generally not lethal to E. coli, the rate of E. coli inactivation is dominated by temperature when pH and water activity is taken into account. |
| Meng JH, Genigeorgis CA (1993) Modeling lag phase of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum toxigenesis in cooked turkey and chicken breast as affected by temperature, sodium lactate, sodium chloride and spore inoculum. International Journal of Food Microbiology 19 (2):109-122. | FC/NSS | Commercially cooked uncured turkey breast rolls and cooked uncured chicken rolls | Chicken Turkey |
Clostridium botulinum (non-proteolytic) |
Antimicrobials (Sodium lactate and sodium chloride) Temperature control (Storage temperature) |
Prevention of toxin production | Time: · Storage for up to 120 days Temperature: · Storage at 4 to 30°C Concentration: · NaCl at 0 to 2% · Sodium lactate at 0 to 3% pH: 6.2 to 6.3 Other: Storage was conducted in vacuum packages |
Concentration: NaCl and sodium lactate Temperature: Storage temperature |
No toxin was found in samples incubated at 4°C for up to 120 days when sodium lactate at >1.2% was present. At 8°C, toxin was not observed after 80 days storage in meats with 3% sodium lactate and 2% NaCl. At 12°C, toxin was not observed until after 36 days storage of meat inoculated with ≤100 spores and containing 3% sodium lactate and 2% NaCl. At 16°C, toxin was not observed until after 30 days storage of meat inoculated with ≤100 spores and containing 3% sodium lactate and 2% NaCl. A predictive model was developed to determine the lag phase of C. botulinum toxigenesis in cooked turkey breast with sodium lactate concentration, NaCl concentration, and storage temperature as variables. |
| Min KJ, Yoon KS (2010) Development and validation of a predictive model for foodborne pathogens in ready-to-eat pork as a function of temperature and a mixture of potassium lactate and sodium diacetate. Journal of Food Protection 73 (9):1626-1632. | FC/NSS | Cooked-pressed pork pyeonyuk | Pork | Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus aureus |
Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate [PL] and sodium diacetate [SD]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: >160 hours Temperature: 10 to 30°C Concentration: · 1% (0.73% potassium lactate and 0.05% diacetate · 2% (1.46% potassium lactate and 0.1% sodium diacetate · 3% (2.18% potassium lactate and 0.16% sodium diacetate pH: 5.8 to 6.5 Product Coverage: the pork was cooked by boiling in the antimicrobials prior to pressing Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples Other: Samples were vacuum packaged |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Lactate and diacetate |
Product containing 2-3% lactate + diacetate completely inhibited growth of Salmonella Typhimurium and S. aureus at 10°C. Storage temperature and the amount of lactate and diacetate added impact the growth rate and lag time of Salmonella Typhimurium and S. aureus. |
| Nickelson R, Luchansky JB, Kaspar CW, Johnson EA (1996) Update on dry fermented sausage Escherichia coli O157:H7 validation research. Chicago, IL. | NHT/SS | Dry fermented sausage | Not specified | E. coli O157:H7 | Temperature control (Heat treatment) pH control (Fermentation) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Cook time: 1 to 7 hours Temperature: · Fermentation temperature: 70, 90, or 110°F · Cooking temperature: 100 to 125°F pH: Low (pH 4.4 to 4.6) or High (pH 5.0 to 5.3) Spatial Configuration: Sausages were made in 55 or 105 mm casings Other: Moisture/protein ratios: 2.3, 1.9, and 1.6 |
Time Temperature pH Spatial Configuration The following processes yield at least a 5-log reduction in E. coli O157:H7 levels in dry fermented sausages: · Ferment at 90°F to pH 5.3 and apply cook, then dry for ≥7 days (105 mm casing) · Ferment at 90°F to pH 4.6 and hold at 90°F for ≥6 days (55 mm casing) · Ferment at 90°F to pH 4.6 and apply cook (either 55 or 105 mm casing) · Ferment at 110°F to pH 4.6 and hold at 110F for ≥4 days (either 55 or 105 mm casing) |
This is the Blue Ribbon Task Force document. Other tested processes yielded <5 log reductions of E. coli O157:H7 and may be useful in combined intervention strategies. |
| Nunez de Gonzalez MT, Keeton JT, Acuff GR, Ringer LJ, Lucia LM (2004) Effectiveness of acidic calcium sulfate with propionic and lactic acid and lactates as postprocessing dipping solutions to control Listeria monocytogenes on frankfurters with or without potassium lactate and stored vacuum packaged at 4.5 degrees C. Journal of Food Protection 67 (5):915-921. | FC/NSS | Frankfurters | Beef and pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (In formulation [potassium lactate] or as antimicrobial dips: acidic calcium sulfate with propionic and lactic acid [ACS], potassium lactate [KL] or lactic acid [LA]) |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Up to 12 weeks storage Temperature: 4.5°C storage temperature Concentration: One frankfurter formulation included 3.3% of a 60% (wt/wt) potassium lactate solution See paper for other formulation ingredients and for concentration of dips Water Activity: 0.970 to 0.980 pH: 6.0 to 6.3 in finished product prior to dips; 5.36 to 6.3 after dip Contact Time: 30 seconds for dips Product Coverage: Surface for dips; one group of frankfurters had potassium lactate in the formulation Spatial Configuration: 14.5 cm length x 2.5 cm diameter Other: Vacuum packaging |
Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobial in dips |
ACS used as a dip appeared to have a bacteriocidal effect on L. monocytogenes. The ACS dip reduced L. monocytogenes levels to below detectable levels in both frankfurter formulations throughout the 12 week storage period. None of the other dips were able to prevent an increase in L. monocytogenes levels in either frankfurter formulation during storage, although LA-dipped frankfurters tended to have lower L. monocytogenes levels. |
| Pal A, Labuza TP, Diez-Gonzalez F (2008) Shelf life evaluation for ready-to-eat sliced uncured turkey breast and cured ham under probable storage conditions based on Listeria monocytogenes and psychrotroph growth. International Journal of Food Microbiology 126 (1-2):49-56. | FC/NSS | Sliced, uncured turkey breast, cooked, cured ham | Pork Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate, sodium diacetate) High-pressure processing (to reduce background flora prior to inoculation with L. monocytogenes) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · HPP time: 15 min · Storage up to 90 days Temperature: Storage temperature: 4, 8, 12°C Concentration: 2% potassium lactate + 0.2% sodium diacetate in some formulations. Spatial Configuration: · Turkey breast: mean weight: 27.9 g; mean radius: 5.2 cm; thickness: 0.3 cm · Ham: mean weight: 29.5 g; mean radius: 5.2 cm; thickness: 0.3 cm Pressure: 400 MPa prior to inoculation Other: · Turkey o Moisture: 60 to 70% o Protein: 18 to 22% o Fat: 1.8 to 2.2% · Ham o Moisture: similar to turkey o Protein: 18 to 24% o Fat: 2 to 5% o Salt: 2.3 to 2.8%, 0.5% sugar, 0.5% phosphates, 500 ppm sodium erythorbate, 190 ppm ingoing nitrite. · Packaging in air or under vacuum |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials |
This study compared the ability of HPP vs. lactate plus diacetate in preventing L. monocytogenes from growing on RTE products during cold storage. The ability of lactate/diacetate to inhibit growth of L. monocytogenes is temperature dependent. Adding lactate/diacetate limited the growth of L. monocytogenes at 4°C, but some growth was observed at 8° and 12°C. Various strains responded differently to the treatments (and storage temperature in the absence of antimicrobials). Prior HPP treatment did affect growth of background flora but did not significantly influence the growth of L. monocytogenes. Vacuum packaging slowed the onset and rate of L. monocytogenes growth under some conditions. |
| Reham AA, Seham NH (2014) Improvement in shelf-life and safety of chicken breast inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus by using liquid smoke as natural antimicrobial. Global Journal of Agriculture and Food Safety Sciences 1:442-453. | Other (Fresh meat was studied, but intervention may be applicable to NHT/SS, HT/SS, FC/NSS, and NFC/NSS) |
Fresh chicken breast | Chicken | Staphylococcus aureus | Antimicrobials (Liquid smoke) Storage/holding |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: 11 days storage Temperature: 4°C storage; 25°C during liquid smoke dipping period Concentration: 1 to 5% Dwell Time: 10 to 30 min at 25°C Contact Time: 10 to 30 min at 25°C Product Coverage: All surfaces of chicken were covered during dipping Spatial Configuration: 100 g samples |
Concentration: 1%, 3%, and 5% liquid smoke Dwell (or Contact Time): 10 to 30 minutes |
Dipping fresh chicken meat in liquid smoke prior to storage at 4°C resulted in reduction in S. aureus levels. Greater reductions were observe at higher concentrations and with longer dip times. |
| Sanchez-Plata MX, Amezquita A, Blankenship E, Burson DE, Juneja V, Thippareddi H (2005) Predictive model for Clostridium perfringens growth in roast beef during cooling and inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth by organic acid salts. Journal of Food Protection 68 (12):2594-2605. | FC/NSS | Roast beef from fat-trimmed beef top rounds, marinated and ground | Beef | Clostridium perfringens | Temperature control (Stabilization) Antimicrobials (Sodium citrate, sodium diacetate, sodium lactate, and potassium lactate) Storage/holding |
Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling Inhibition of spore germination and outgrowth |
Time: · Heat shock time: 20 min · Chilling time: 9, 12, 15, 18, 21 hr · Storage time: up to 60 days Temperature: · Heat shock temperature: 75°C · Chilling temperature: 54.5 to 7.2°C · Storage temperature: 10°C Concentration: · Finished product concentrations in all products: o 1% NaCl o 0.2% potassium tetrapyrophosphate · Antimicrobials (in select formulations): o 1.3% buffered sodium citrate o 1.3% buffered citrate with 0.8% sodium diacetate o 2.5% mixture of sodium lactate and potassium lactate (1:1) o 2.5% mixture of sodium lactate and sodium diacetate (6:4). Product Coverage: Antimicrobials were mixed with meat Spatial Configuration: 5 g samples |
Time: Cooking time Storage time Temperature: Chilling temperature Concentration: Concentration of antimicrobials |
The study looked at both growth during cooling and then under abusive storage conditions. Slower and longer chilling times resulted in growth of C. perfringens. The use of the organic acid salts inhibited germination and outgrowth of C. perfringens during cooling. Use of organic acid salts resulted in greater persistence of spores in roast beef that contained the antimicrobials during storage than in roast beef that did not contain them. This may be because the antimicrobials prevented them from germinating. The model predicts growth of C. perfringens based upon temperature and holding time. |
| Seman DL, Borger AC, Meyer JD, Hall PA, Milkowski AL (2002) Modeling the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in cured ready-to-eat processed meat products by manipulation of sodium chloride, sodium diacetate, potassium lactate, and product moisture content. Journal of Food Protection 65 (4):651-658. | FC/NSS | Bologna-type | Pork and turkey | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Potassium lactate [PL] and sodium diacetate [SD]) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time up to 18 weeks Temperature: 4°C storage temperature Concentration: · NaCl: 0.8, 1.5, 2.2, 2.9, 3.6% · Potassium lactate syrup (60%): 0.25, 2.5, 4.75, 7.0, 9.25% · Sodium diacetate: 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.2% Spatial Configuration: 4.6 diameter, nonpermeable casings. Four slices of 25 g were packed nylon pouches Other: · Moisture: 45.5, 55.0, 64.5, 74, 83.5% · All products contained 97 ppm nitrite and 0.276% sodium tripolyphosphate |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Diacetate, potassium lactate syrup, and NaCl Other: Product moisture% |
A dose-dependent response of listeria to added lactate and diacetate was observed, which was also influenced by product moisture and salt content. This model demonstrated the ability of lactate and diacetate to decrease the growth potential of Listeria monocytogenes in model RTE meat products. |
| Seman DL, Quickert SC, Borger AC, Meyer JD (2008) Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes growth in cured ready-to-eat meat products by use of sodium benzoate and sodium diacetate. Journal of Food Protection 71 (7):1386-1392. | FC/NSS | Model meat product Beef franks Wieners Bologna |
Pork and turkey Beef Pork and turkey Pork and chicken |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Sodium benzoate, sodium diacetate) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage time of 18 weeks Temperature: Storage temperature of 4°C Concentration (ingoing) · Sodium benzoate: 0.08 to 0.25% · Sodium diacetate: 0.05 to 0.15% · Salt: 0.8 to 2.1% Other: Moisture content (55.1 to 62.2%) |
Time: Storage time Concentration: Ingoing organic acid preservative) Moisture content |
Increasing amounts of benzoate, salt, and diacetate increase the time-to-growth of Listeria. Products with moisture content less than ~60% that were formulated with sodium benzoate and sodium diacetate did not allow L. monocytogenes growth. This model can be used to formulate products my manipulating these ingredients. The contour plots illustrate no growth areas for Listeria monocytogenes. |
| Sheen S, Hwang CA, Juneja VK (2011) Modeling the impact of chlorine on the behavior of Listeria monocytogenes on ready-to-eat meats. Food Microbiology 28 (5):1095-1100. | FC/NSS | Ready-to-eat ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes | Sanitation (Chlorine [sodium hypochlorite] solution) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Exposure of Listeria to chlorine before transfer to ham was 1 hr Temperature: Storage temperatures of 4, 8, and 16°C Concentration: 0, 25, and 50 ppm chlorine pH: inoculum was at pH 6.8 to 7.2 Spatial Configuration: 3 cm x 3 cm ham slices weighing ~5 g |
Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of chlorine used for Listeria treatment or sanitation |
Listeria growth was suppressed by the chlorine treatments. Lag time decreased with increasing temperature. Growth rate increased with increasing temperature and decreased with increasing temperature. Models (one shown below) were developed to predict the lag time and growth rate of Listeria monocytogenes that had been pre-treated with chlorine on cooked ham: Linear regression model: LAG = 7.1047 – 0.9002 T + 0:0562 CLO + 0:0334 T2 GR = 2.1911- 0.1248 T- 0.0512 CLO + 0.0115 T2 + 0.0006 CLO2 where LAG is lag time in days, T is temperature in °C, CLO is chlorine concentration in ppm, and GR is growth rate in log CFU/day |
| Tango CN, Park JH, Oh DH (2016) An experimental validated in silico model to assess Staphylococcus aureus growth kinetics on different pork products. Journal of Applied Microbiology 120 (3):684-696. | NFC/NSS | Raw pork, sausage, ham | Pork | Staphylococcus aureus | Temperature control (Refrigeration) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Up to 180 hours of storage Temperature: Storage at 5 to 40°C Water Activity: 0.949 for raw pork; 0.917 for ham, and 0.902 for sausage pH: 5.62 for raw pork; 5.23 for ham, and 5.14 for sausage Spatial Configuration: 10 g samples in Whirl-Pak bags Other: The meat was initially not sterile and contained natural microflora less than 4.5 log CFU/g. . |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature |
Reduced storage temperature lengthens lag time and decreases growth rates. At temperatures less than 10°C, lag times were predicted to exceed 50 hours and growth rates were near 0. A model was generated from this study which shows the sensitivity of S. aureus to temperatures. |
| The American Meat Institute Foundation (1997) Good manufacturing practices for fermented dry & semi-dry sausage products. Accessed 6 April 2016. | NHT/SS HT/SS |
Fermented dry and semi-dry sausage products | Beef Pork |
Staphylococcus aureus E. coli O157:H7 |
Temperature control pH control |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: Number of hours to reach pH 5.3 Temperature: Chamber temperature pH: Reduction in pH, which can be achieved by fermentation or by acidulation of sausage batter |
Time: 18 to 80 hours, see below Temperature: 75 to 110°F, see below pH: to ≤5.3 A process is acceptable if pH 5.3 is reached in the following “degree hours” (Degree hours= [fermentation temperature in °F -60] x hours) 1. Fewer than 1200 degree-hours when the highest chamber temperature is less than 90°F. 2. Fewer than 1000 degree-hours when the chamber temperature is between 90 and 100°F. 3. Fewer than 900 degree-hours when the chamber temperature is greater than 100°F. |
The document states that fermentation to pH ≤4.6 at 90°F or 110°F requires further holding and potentially a heat process in order to destroy E. coli O157:H7. During fermentation it is necessary to limit the time during which the sausage meat is exposed to temperatures exceeding 60°F. |
| Theinsathid P, Visessanguan W, Kruenate J, Kingcha Y, Keeratipibul S (2012) Antimicrobial activity of lauric arginate-coated polylactic acid films against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium on cooked sliced ham. Journal of Food Science 77 (2):M142-M149. | FC/NSS | Cooked sliced cured ham | Pork | Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp. |
Antimicrobials (Lauric arginate-coated polylactic acid film) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: Storage for 0 to 7 days Temperature: 4°C storage temperature Concentration: 0% to 2.6% (w/w) lauric arginate (LAE) Product Coverage: The LAE was applied to the ham by coating surface-activated PLA films with LAE solutions which were wrapped around sliced cooked ham Spatial Configuration: ~35 g, 7 mm thick slices Other: Inoculated ham samples were stored in closed petri dishes until testing |
Time: Pathogen reductions occurred within 1 day and lasted for the entire 7-day study Temperature: 4°C Concentration: 2.6% lauric arginate |
Although all tested LAE concentrations on the films caused significant reductions in both L. monocytogenes and Salmonella, the 2.6% LAE film showed “a significantly and markedly greater antibacterial activity”, reducing both pathogens by almost 4 log CFU throughout the 7-day storage period. |
| Tilkens BL, King AM, Glass KA, Sindelar JJ (2015) Validating the Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus in Shelf-Stable, Ready-to-Eat Snack Sausages with Varying Combinations of pH and Water Activity. Journal of Food Protection 78 (6):1215-1220. | HT/SS | Ready-to-eat snack sausages | Beef and pork | Staphylococcus aureus | Water activity control pH control |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: up to 28 days Temperature: Thermally processed to reach an internal temperature of 71.1°C; 21°C during storage after inoculation Concentration: Non-meat ingredients in the formulation included 2.23% salt, 547 ppm sodium erythorbate, 156 ppm sodium nitrite, and citric acid to reduce pH Humidity: 80% to 63% during drying Water Activity: reduced by drying to 0.96, 0.92, and 0.88 pH: pH was reduced with citric acid to pH 4.7 to 5.6 Spatial Configuration: Sausages were 30 mm diameter, 75 cm long Other: Different packaging was used to assess aerobic and anaerobic conditions during storage |
Water Activity: ≤0.96 pH: ≤5.1 . |
Product with both pH and water activity values below these limits did not support S. aureus growth during storage The authors of the study indicate the results are also applicable to poultry products. |
| U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2013) Food Code 2013. Accessed 7 August 2017. | FC/NSS | Fully cooked products (including intact or non-intact meat or poultry) Products may be cured or uncured, although there is a larger safety margin if cured |
Beef Pork Poultry |
Clostridium botulinum Clostridium perfringens |
Temperature control (Stabilization) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Cooling time between 135°F and 70°F · Cooling time between 135°F and 41°F Temperature: Temperature during cooling |
Time: Cooling time Temperature: Cooling between 135 and 41°F must occur within certain time limits; see below FDA Food Code Cooling Option: Cooked food shall be cooled · Within 2 hours from 135°F to 70°F; and · Within a total of 6 hours from 135°F to 41°F |
This cooling procedure from the 2013 FDA Food Code is also acceptable to USDA FSIS, per the 2017 revised Appendix B guidelines. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2014a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for Meat and Poultry Jerky Produced by Small and Very Small Establishments. Accessed 06 January 2017. | HT/SS | Meat or poultry jerky made from whole muscle or ground product that is formed into strips | Meat Poultry |
Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes E. coli O157:H7 and other STEC |
Temperature control (Heat treatment in a liquid and drying step with heat) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: · Heat treatment time · Drying time Temperature: · Product internal temperature during heat treatment with liquid · Temperature during heat treatment Other: Moisture content after dying: 18.5% to 23.8% |
Time: The time during the lethality heat treatment Temperature: · Heating to 71.1°C (product internal temperature) within a marinade or in water prior to the lethality treatment · The temperature during the heat treatment Humidity: Relative humidity during the lethality treatment |
Heat treating jerky in a liquid marinade or water prior to the final lethality treatment provides an immediate reduction in pathogen levels; however, a subsequent drying treatment with heat may be sufficient to eliminate pathogens under normal contamination levels. See also Harrison JA, Harrison MA (1996) Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella typhimurium during preparation and storage of beef jerky. Journal of Food Protection 59 (12):1336-1338. http://jfoodprotection.org/doi/pdf/10.4315/0362-028X-59.12.1336 |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2014a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for Meat and Poultry Jerky Produced by Small and Very Small Establishments. Accessed 06 January 2017. | HT/SS | Meat or poultry jerky made from whole muscle or ground product that is formed into strips | Meat Poultry |
Salmonella spp. | Antimicrobials (Acetic acid dip used prior to marinade and drying) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Time in dip Concentration: 5% acetic acid dip prior to marinade and drying |
Time: 10 minutes within dip Concentration: 5% acetic acid in dip |
Such a dip can augment the effects of drying, but is not alone sufficient to eliminate pathogens and may affect taste. See also Calicioglu M, Sofos JN, Kendall PA, Smith GC (2003c) Effects of acid adaptation and modified marinades on survival of postdrying Salmonella contamination on beef jerky during storage. Journal of Food Protection 66 (3):396-402. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2014a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for Meat and Poultry Jerky Produced by Small and Very Small Establishments. Accessed 06 January 2017. | HT/SS | Meat or poultry jerky made from whole muscle or ground product that is formed into strips | Meat Poultry |
Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes E. coli O157:H7 |
Antimicrobials (Acidic calcium sulfate or acidified sodium chlorite dip used prior to marinade and drying) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Time in dip Concentration: acidic calcium sulfate solution or acidified sodium chlorite dip prior to marinade and drying |
Time: 30 second dip (acidic calcium sulfate) or simple dip (acidified sodium chlorite) Concentration: 1:2 or 1:3 mixtures of acidic calcium sulfate (Mionix Safe2OTm) and water, or 500-122 ppm acidified sodium chlorite (Keeper®) |
See also Calicioglu M, Sofos JN, Kendall PA, Smith GC (2003c) Effects of acid adaptation and modified marinades on survival of postdrying Salmonella contamination on beef jerky during storage. Journal of Food Protection 66 (3):396-402. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2014a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for Meat and Poultry Jerky Produced by Small and Very Small Establishments. Accessed 06 January 2017. | HT/SS | Meat or poultry jerky made from whole muscle or ground product that is formed into strips | Meat Poultry |
Staphylococcus aureus | Water activity control | Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Water Activity: aw<0.85 under aerobic packaging conditions; aw<0.91 under anaerobic conditions Other: Packaging type (aerobic or anaerobic) |
Water Activity: aw<0.85 under aerobic conditions; aw<0.91 under anaerobic conditions |
Note that while this intervention does control S. aureus, other controls will be needed to ensure adequate reduction of Salmonella. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2014b) FSIS Compliance Guideline: Controlling Listeria monocytogenes in Post-lethality Exposed Ready-to-Eat Meat and Poultry Products. Accessed 11 May 2016. | NHT/SS HT/SS FC/NSS |
RTE meat or poultry products | Meat Poultry |
Listeria monocytogenes | Temperature control Water activity control pH control |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Temperature: Storage temperature Water Activity: Product water activity during storage pH: pH of product during storage |
Temperature: <31.3°F or >113°F during shelf-life Water Activity: <0.92 pH: <4.39 or >9.4 throughout shelf-life (Any one of the above conditions during storage are alone sufficient to control growth of Lm). |
These conditions should ensure inhibition of Listeria growth during storage (≤2 log). The guidance document also states that a water activity value ≤0.85 at the time of product packaging can be considered both a post-lethality treatment and an antimicrobial treatment. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2016a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for the Prevention and Control of Trichinella and Other Parasitic Hazards in Pork and Products Containing Pork. Accessed 06 January 2017. | NHT/SS HT/SS HT/NSS FC/NSS NFC/NSS |
Pork products that are not customarily well cooked in the home or elsewhere before being served to the consumer, including bologna, frankfurter, Vienna, and other cooked sausage; smoked sausage, etc.; see reference for detailed list. | Pork | Trichinella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Cooking time after specified temperature is reached Temperature: Product temperature (throughout product) maintained during cooking Spatial Configuration: All parts of the pork muscle must achieve the specified temperature for the specified time |
Time: Instantaneous to 21 hours; see reference Temperature: 120°F to 144°F; see reference |
The reference includes a table listing temperature (from 120° to 144°F) and times (from 21 hours to instantaneous) specifying appropriate time and temperature combinations that will destroy trichinae. The time to raise the product temperature from 60°F to 120°F shall not exceed 2 hours unless the product is cured or fermented. See also 9 CFR Part 318.10. Prescribed treatment of pork and products containing pork to destroy trichinae. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2016a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for the Prevention and Control of Trichinella and Other Parasitic Hazards in Pork and Products Containing Pork. Accessed 06 January 2017. | NHT/SS HT/SS HT/NSS FC/NSS NFC/NSS |
Pork products that are not customarily well cooked in the home or elsewhere before being served to the consumer, including bologna, frankfurter, Vienna, and other cooked sausage; smoked sausage, etc.; see reference for detailed list. | Pork | Trichinella spp. | Temperature control (Refrigeration and freezing) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Time stored in refrigerator/freezer Temperature: Temperature of freezer or internal temperature Spatial Configuration: Unless commercial freeze drying or controlled freezing is used, the product must be spaced in the freezer to ensure free circulation of air between pieces of meat, layers, blocks, boxes, etc. so that the temperature of the meat throughout will be promptly reduced to the specified temperature. |
Time: ½ hour to 30 days depending on temperature; see reference Temperature: -35°F to 5°F depending on time; see reference The reference specifies various combinations of time and temperature that may be used to meet the requirements. |
See also 9 CFR Part 318.10 The product must undergo preparatory chilling to a temperature ≤40°F. The arrangement and size of the products during freezing needs to meet the requirements specified in the reference. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2016a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for the Prevention and Control of Trichinella and Other Parasitic Hazards in Pork and Products Containing Pork. Accessed 06 January 2017. | NHT/SS HT/SS HT/NSS FC/NSS NFC/NSS |
Pork products that are not customarily well cooked in the home or elsewhere before being served to the consumer, including bologna, frankfurter, Vienna, and other cooked sausage; smoked sausage, etc; see reference for detailed list. | Pork | Trichinella spp. | Temperature control (Heat treatment) Antimicrobials (Nitrite) Water activity control |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Drying and/or smoking time Temperature: Curing temperature Concentration: Concentration of salt or ratio of salt to meat weight Contact Time: Cure contact time, variable Product Coverage: Specified for some times of curing Spatial Configuration: for stuffed sausages, the diameters are specified |
Time: Variable, see reference Temperature: Variable, see reference Concentration: Variable, see reference Contact time: Variable, see reference The reference specifies a variety of curing conditions that will meet the requirements for different types of cured pork products |
See also 9 CFR Part 318.10 |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2016a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for the Prevention and Control of Trichinella and Other Parasitic Hazards in Pork and Products Containing Pork. Accessed 06 January 2017. | NHT/SS HT/SS HT/NSS FC/NSS NFC/NSS |
Pork products that are not customarily well cooked in the home or elsewhere before being served to the consumer, including bologna, frankfurter, Vienna, and other cooked sausage; smoked sausage, etc.; see reference for detailed list. | Pork | Trichinella spp. | High-pressure processing | Pathogen reduction | Time: Time at pressure Pressure: High-pressure processing at 483 or 600 MPa (70,053 or 87,022 psi) |
Time: ≥1 minute Pressure: ≥483 MPa (70,053 psi) |
See also Porto-Fett ACS, Call JE, Shoyer BE, Hill DE, Pshebniski C, Cocoma GJ, Luchansky JB (2010) Evaluation of fermentation, drying, and/or high pressure processing on viability of Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and Trichinella spiralis in raw pork and Genoa salami. International Journal of Food Microbiology 140 (1):61-75. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168160510000899?via%3Dihub |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2016a) FSIS Compliance Guideline for the Prevention and Control of Trichinella and Other Parasitic Hazards in Pork and Products Containing Pork. Accessed 06 January 2017. | NHT/SS HT/SS HT/NSS FC/NSS NFC/NSS |
Pork products that are not customarily well cooked in the home or elsewhere before being served to the consumer, including bologna, frankfurter, Vienna, and other cooked sausage; smoked sausage, etc.; see reference for detailed list. | Pork | Trichinella spp. | Irradiation | Pathogen reduction | Other: Irradiation level | Other (Irradiation): 40 to 50 krad (0.4 to 0.6 kGy) of cesium-137, cobalt-60 or high energy x-rays at this same level |
|
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017a) FSIS compliance guideline for stabilization (cooling and hot-holding) of fully and partially heat-treated RTE and NRTE meat and poultry products produced by small and very small establishments and revised Appendix B. Accessed 21 June 2017. | FC/NSS NFC/NSS |
Fully cooked products (including intact or non-intact meat or poultry) Partially cooked small mass items, provided the establishment can support the heating come-up time to the final heating temperature is ≤1 hour Products may be cured or uncured, although there is a larger safety margin if cured |
Beef Pork Poultry |
Clostridium botulinum Clostridium perfringens |
Temperature control (Stabilization) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Cooling time between 130°F and 80°F · Cooling time between 80°F and 40°F Temperature: Temperature during cooling |
Time: The time spent between various cooling temperatures should occur within certain limits; see below Temperature: Cooling between 130 and 40°F must occur within certain time limits; see below Option 1: During cooling, the product's maximum internal temperature should not remain between 130°F and 80°F for more than 1.5 hours nor between 80°F and 40°F for more than 5 hours (6.5 hours total) |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline is found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20B.pdf This table entry represents Option 1 of the 2017 revised Appendix B guidelines for stabilization. Adhering to this option will limit growth of C. perfringens to ≤1 log and allow for no multiplication of C. botulinum. Cooling must be continuous and not a process with multiple starts and stops. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017a) FSIS compliance guideline for stabilization (cooling and hot-holding) of fully and partially heat-treated RTE and NRTE meat and poultry products produced by small and very small establishments and revised Appendix B. Accessed 21 June 2017. | FC/NSS | Fully cooked products (including intact or non-intact meat or poultry) Products may be cured or uncured, although there is a larger safety margin if cured |
Beef Pork Poultry |
Clostridium botulinum Clostridium perfringens |
Temperature control (Stabilization) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Cooling time between 130°F and 80°F · Cooling time between 80°F and 40°F Temperature: Temperature during cooling |
Time: Cooling time Temperature: Cooling between 130 and 40°F must occur within certain time limits; see below Option 2: · Chilling should begin within 90 minutes after the cooking cycle is completed. · All product should be chilled from 120°F to 80°F in 1 hour and from 80°F to 55°F in 5 hours (6 hours total cooling time) followed by continuous chilling until the product reaches 40°F |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline is found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20B.pdf This table entry represents Option 2 of the 2017 revised Appendix B guidelines for stabilization. Adhering to this option will limit growth of C. perfringens to ≤1 log and allow for no multiplication of C. botulinum. Size, shape, and weight of product can affect cooling rate, as can the degree to which a cooler is filled. Cooling must be continuous and not a process with multiple starts and stops. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017a) FSIS compliance guideline for stabilization (cooling and hot-holding) of fully and partially heat-treated RTE and NRTE meat and poultry products produced by small and very small establishments and revised Appendix B. Accessed 21 June 2017. | FC/NSS | Fully cooked products (including intact or non-intact meat or poultry) that are cured with at least 100 ppm ingoing sodium nitrite (either from a purified or a natural source) and 250 ppm sodium erythorbate or ascorbate | Beef Pork Poultry |
Clostridium botulinum Clostridium perfringens |
Temperature control (Stabilization) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Cooling time between 130°F and 80°F · Cooling time between 80°F and 45°F Temperature: Temperature during cooling Concentration: · Ingoing NaNO2 (purified or from a natural source) ≥100 ppm · Ingoing erythorbate or ascorbate ≥250 ppm |
Time: Cooling time Temperature: Cooling between 130 and 45°F must occur within certain time limits; see below Option 3: During cooling, the product's maximum internal temperature should not remain between 130°F and 80°F for more than 5 hours nor between 80°F and 45°F for more than 10 hours (15 hour total cooling time). |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline is found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20B.pdf This table entry represents Option 3 of the 2017 revised Appendix B guidelines for stabilization. Adhering to this option will limit growth of C. perfringens to ≤1 log and allow for no multiplication of C. botulinum. Cooling must be continuous and not a process with multiple starts and stops. The draft guidance does not specify whether the erythorbate/ascorbate may come from a natural source (for example, cherry powder) or not. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017a) FSIS compliance guideline for stabilization (cooling and hot-holding) of fully and partially heat-treated RTE and NRTE meat and poultry products produced by small and very small establishments and revised Appendix B. Accessed 21 June 2017. | FC/NSS | Fully cooked products (including intact or non-intact meat or poultry) that are either: Formulated with ≥40 ppm of sodium nitrite or its equivalent AND a brine concentration of ≥6% OR Formulated with or without nitrite (such as salt cured product) but with a maximum water activity of 0.92 |
Beef Pork Poultry |
Clostridium botulinum Clostridium perfringens |
Temperature control (Stabilization) | Prevention of pathogen growth during cooling | Time: · Cooling time between 120°F and 40°F Temperature: Temperature during cooling Concentration: · Ingoing sodium nitrite: ≥40 ppm · Brine concentration: ≥6% Water Activity: ≤0.92 unless ingoing sodium nitrite and brine levels are met |
Time: Cooling time Temperature: Cooling between 120 and 40°F, see below Concentration: ingoing sodium nitrite and brine concentration Option 4: During cooling, the product’s maximum internal temperature should not remain between 120°F to 40°F for more than 20 hours, and the cooling process must: · Cause a continuous drop in product temperature, OR · Control the product’s temperature so that it does not stay between 120°F and 80°F for more than 2 hours |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline is found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20B.pdf This table entry represents Option 4 of the 2017 revised Appendix B guidelines for stabilization. Adhering to this option will limit growth of C. perfringens to ≤1 log and allow for no multiplication of C. botulinum. Cooling must be continuous and not a process with multiple starts and stops. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017b) Salmonella compliance guidelines for small and very small meat and poultry establishments that produce ready-to-eat (RTE) products and revised Appendix A (June 2017). Accessed 20 June 2017. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Raw products being heat treated to produce roast beef, beef and corned beef products and other fully cooked RTE meat products | Beef Pork |
Salmonella spp. Other pathogens including E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes will be controlled under these conditions (USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, 2014b, 2017b) |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Cooking time at specified internal temperature; 0 to 121 min Temperature: Internal temperature of meat; 54.4 to 71.1°C Humidity: For products that weigh <10 lbs., humidity must be applied when following Appendix A. Can be achieved by encasing in a sealed, moisture impermeable bag, immersion during cooking, or using a sealed oven or steam injection See Appendix A for additional humidity options when cooking time is at least 1 hour. Spatial Configuration: Roasts, including sectioned/chunked and formed roasts that weigh <10 lbs. |
Time: 0 sec. to 121 min Temperature: 54.4°C to 71.1°C (internal temperature) Humidity: Cooked beef should be moist cooked (≥90% relative humidity) throughout the process if following the Time/Temp table in Appendix A. Roast or corned beef can be roasted under other conditions where the relative humidity is not always at 90%; see the document for specific conditions. |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline can be found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20A.pdf See page 33 of Appendix A for specific combinations of time, temperature and humidity that will result in a ≥6.5 log10 reduction in Salmonella for these types of products. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017b) Salmonella compliance guidelines for small and very small meat and poultry establishments that produce ready-to-eat (RTE) products and revised Appendix A (June 2017). Accessed 20 June 2017. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Raw products being heat treated to produce cooked poultry products including cooked poultry rolls and breakfast strips | Chicken Turkey |
Salmonella spp. Other pathogens including E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes will be controlled under these conditions (USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, 2014b, 2017b) |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Heating come-up time up to 6 hours Temperature: Internal temperature of meat from 50 to 130°F |
Time: Not more than 5 hours Temperature: 50 to 130°F (internal temperature) |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline can be found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20A.pdf Longer come-up times may also be acceptable if an establishment has additional support demonstrating that S. aureus will not grow to >3 logs in the product. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017b) Salmonella compliance guidelines for small and very small meat and poultry establishments that produce ready-to-eat (RTE) products and revised Appendix A (June 2017). Accessed 20 June 2017. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Raw products being heat treated to produce roast beef, beef and corned beef products; poultry products | Beef Pork Chicken Turkey |
Staphylococcus aureus | Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Prevention of toxin production | Time: Cooking time at specified internal temperature; 10 to 41 seconds Temperature: Internal temperature of meat of 66.1 to 69.4°C Spatial Configuration: Shaped and formed, comminuted, flattened cake of meat food product |
Time: 10 to 41 seconds Temperature: 66.1 to 69.4°C (internal temperature) |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline can be found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20A.pdf See 9 CFR Part 318.23 for specific combinations of time, temperature and humidity that will result in a ≥5 log10 reduction in Salmonella or E. coli O157:H7 |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017b) Salmonella compliance guidelines for small and very small meat and poultry establishments that produce ready-to-eat (RTE) products and revised Appendix A (June 2017). Accessed 20 June 2017. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Uncured meat patties being heat treated to produce fully-cooked meat patties | Beef Pork |
Salmonella spp. Other pathogens including E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes will be controlled under these conditions (USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, 2014b, 2017b) |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Cooking time of <10 sec to 81.4 min Temperature: Cooking to an internal temperature of 57.8 to 73.9°C Humidity: For products that weigh <10 lbs., humidity must be applied when following Appendix A. Can be achieved by encasing in a sealed, moisture impermeable bag, immersion during cooking, or using a sealed oven or steam injection Spatial Configuration: <10 lbs. Other: % fat of product: 0 to >12% |
Time: Cooking time of <10 sec to 81.4 min Temperature: Cooking to an internal temperature of 57.8 to 73.9°C Humidity: See guidance for details on options to meet humidity requirements Other: % fat |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline can be found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20A.pdf See page 34 and 35 of Appendix A for specific combinations of time, temperature and humidity that will result in a 7 log10 reduction in Salmonella for these types of products. Separate tables are provided for chicken and turkey. |
| USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (2017b) Salmonella compliance guidelines for small and very small meat and poultry establishments that produce ready-to-eat (RTE) products and revised Appendix A (June 2017). Accessed 20 June 2017. | Raw (Cooking lethality) | Raw non-intact meat chops, roasts, and steaks being heat treated | Beef Pork |
Salmonella spp. Other pathogens including E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes will be controlled under these conditions (USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, 2014b, 2017b) |
Temperature control (Heat treatment) | Pathogen reduction | Time: Cooking time at specified internal temperature; 0 to 86 min Temperature: Internal temperature of meat; 54.4 to 71.1°C Humidity: For products that weigh <10 lbs., humidity must be applied when following Appendix A. Can be achieved by encasing in a sealed, moisture impermeable bag, immersion during cooking, or using a sealed oven or steam injection See Appendix A for additional humidity options when cooking time is at least 1 hour. Spatial Configuration: Roasts, including sectioned/chunked and formed roasts that weigh <10 lbs. |
Time: 0 sec. to 86 min Temperature: 54.4°C to 71.1°C (internal temperature) Humidity: Cooked beef should be moist cooked (≥90% relative humidity) throughout the process if following the Time/Temp table in Appendix A. Roast or corned beef can be roasted under other conditions where the relative humidity is not always at 90%; see the document for specific conditions. |
Comments on this guidance have not yet been addressed and may change the parameters discussed in this table entry. The previous version of this guideline can be found here: https://meathaccp.wisc.edu/validation/assets/App%20A.pdf See page 36 of Appendix A for specific combinations of time, temperature and humidity that will result in a 5 log10 reduction in Salmonella for these types of products. If using this table, establishments must provide scientific support that the 5-log reduction will result in the production of a safe product as part of their validation process. |
| Valdramidis VP, Patterson MF, Linton M (2015) Modelling the recovery of Listeria monocytogenes in high pressure processed simulated cured meat. Food Control 47:353-358. | FC/NSS | Meat simulation medium (MSM) base (modified BHI broth) | Not specified | Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (NaCl, sodium nitrite) High-pressure processing |
Pathogen reduction Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage |
Time: · HPP processing time: 3 min · Storage for up to 28 days Temperature: · HPP processing temperature: 20°C · Storage temperature: 8°C Concentration: · Sodium chloride: 0 to 34.9 g/L in MSM · Sodium nitrite: 0.09 to 150 mg/L in MSM Water Activity: 0.955 to 0.987 prior to storage pH: 6.21 to 6.53 prior to storage Spatial configuration: 7 x 4 cm pouches for HPP, with air excluded Pressure: 400 to 800 MPa Other: Pouches used for HPP and storage was polylethylene/polyamide |
Concentration: · Sodium chloride · Sodium nitrite Water activity Pressure |
Salt and nitrite may enhance the pressure-induced cell injury. Salt at high levels (and low water activity) may have a baroprotective effect on Listeria monocytogenes. Pressures exceeding 500 mPa decreased counts to less than detectable after 1 day; however, recovery was observed. At pressures over 700 mPa, counts were low throughout 28 days except for the high salt treatment. |
| Yoon KS, Burnette CN, Oscar TP (2004) Development of predictive models for the survival of Campylobacter jejuni (ATCC 43051) on cooked chicken breast patties and in broth as a function of temperature. Journal of Food Protection 67 (1):64-70. | FC/NSS | Cooked chicken breast patties | Chicken | Campylobacter jejuni | Temperature control (During storage) |
Pathogen reduction | Time: Storage time up to 350 hours Temperature: Storage temperature of 4 to 30°C Spatial Configuration: 10 g circular patty before cooking (~6 g after cooking) Other: · Uncured · Aerobic storage of chicken patties and broth; however, the authors speculated that the inoculated C. jejuni might be partially absorbed into the chicken patty so the overall environment may include both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. |
Time: Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature |
The average log reduction of C. jejuni on both patties and in broth was 1.5 and 1.4 logs, respectively, at all storage temperatures. Authors found that survival of C jejuni was better at refrigeration temperatures than at ambient temperatures. Faster death rates and shorter lag times were observed at ambient temperatures rather than refrigeration temperatures. Incubating C. jejuni at different temperature was modeled using a three phase model that included a lag phase, a linear death phase, and a stationary survival phase. Authors noted that this model was to be placed into the USDA PMP program. |
| Yoon Y, Geornaras I, Scanga JA, Belk KE, Smith GC, Kendall PA, Sofos JN (2011) Probabilistic models for the prediction of target growth interfaces of Listeria monocytogenes on ham and turkey breast products. Journal of Food Science 76 (6):M450-M455. | FC/NSS | Cooked cured ham, uncured turkey breast | Pork Turkey |
Listeria monocytogenes | Antimicrobials (Lactic acid dip) |
Inhibition of pathogen growth during storage | Time: · Storage time: 4°C (ham for 30 days, turkey for 25 days); 7°C (ham for 25 days, turkey for 20 days); 10°C (ham for 15 days, turkey for 15 days) · Dipping time: 1, 2, 3, 4 minutes Temperature: · Dip temperature: 35°C · Storage temperatures: 4, 7, and 10°C Concentration: · Lactic acid (LA) dip: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4% pH: · Ham o Initial w/o LA: 6.30 o Initial with LA: 4.2 to 5.85 o After storage w/o LA: 5.79 to 6.03 o After storage with LA:4.10 to 5.66 · Turkey o Initial w/o LA: 6.35 o Initial with LA: 4.16 to 6.02 o After storage w/o LA: 5.94 to 6.07 o After storage with LA:4.07 to 5.80 Spatial configuration: 2 slices (1-2 mm thickness, 3.5 x 3.5 cm) in each package Packaging: Vacuum sealed plastic pouch |
Time: Dipping time Storage time Temperature: Storage temperature Concentration: Concentration of LA in dip |
Lactic acid dips can be useful to control L. monocytogenes growth on RTE meats including ham and turkey during refrigerated storage. The models in this paper would be useful if one was considering dipping slices of ham or turkey into lactic acid solutions to control Listeria growth. The data created growth boundaries that were the interface between growth and no-growth by the variables tested. The growth boundary varied by condition. These results were shown in two-way plots and three-way plots. For example, with a half minute diffing time, a minimum of ca. 3% lactic acid would be required to eliminate growth. |
| Yoon Y, Skandamis PN, Kendall PA, Smith GC, Sofos JN (2006) A predictive model for the effect of temperature and predrying treatments in reducing Listeria monocytogenes populations during drying of beef jerky. Journal of Food Protection 69 (1):62-70. | HT/SS | Beef jerky made from beef inside rounds | Beef | Listeria monocytogenes | Water activity control | Pathogen reduction | Time: · Drying time: 0, 2, 4,6, 8, and 10 hr. · Acetic acid dip time: 10 min Temperature: · Drying temperatures: 52, 57, 63°C Concentration: NE Treatments: C – nothing, M- marinade, and AM – dip in 10% acetic acid for 10 min followed by marinade. See reference for marinade ingredients Water Activity: · Initial: 0.99 · After drying: <0.5 to ~0.6 (see graph in reference) pH: · Prior to drying: 5.35 to 5.55 · After drying with C or M: no change · After drying with AM: 4.34 to 4.65 Spatial Configuration: Before drying, beef slices measured 0.6 x 8.7 x 4.0 cm |
Time: Drying time Concentration: Acetic acid dip |
This study modeled the effects of drying temperatures and pre-drying treatments on L. monocytogenes numbers in beef jerky. The AM treatment (acetic acid dip followed by marination) resulted in the greatest (>6 log) reduction of Listeria after drying. Treatments C and M resulted in 3.5 to 5.4 log reductions after drying 10 hrs. Drying temperature within the range tested did not significantly affect L. monocytogenes inactivation. Authors presented four parameter Kamau logistic models for treatments C and M. They also present a model for treatment AM. |
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